24.2 Rise of populist movements across Europe

Nationalism is a political ideology that emphasizes the interests and culture of a particular nation, often in opposition to foreign influence or control. It fosters a sense of unity and identity among people who share common traits, such as language, culture, and history, and it often motivates movements for self-determination and independence.

Self-Determination: The principle that a nation has the right to govern itself without external interference, often driving nationalist movements.

Patriotism: The love and devotion to one’s country, which can coexist with nationalism but may not necessarily involve the same focus on national superiority or independence.

Civic Nationalism: A form of nationalism that is based on shared citizenship and legal equality rather than ethnic or cultural identity.

Anti-immigration refers to a political stance that opposes the immigration of individuals from other countries, often driven by concerns over national identity, economic competition, or cultural integration. This sentiment has gained traction in various European countries, leading to the rise of populist movements that emphasize nationalism and prioritize the interests of native citizens over those of immigrants.

Nationalism: A political ideology that emphasizes the interests and culture of a particular nation, often leading to a preference for native citizens over foreigners.

Populism: A political approach that seeks to represent the interests of ordinary people, often contrasting them with an elite or established establishment, and frequently incorporating anti-immigration sentiments.

Xenophobia: A fear or prejudice against people from other countries, which can manifest in anti-immigration attitudes and policies.

Economic inequality refers to the unequal distribution of wealth and income among individuals and groups in a society. This disparity often leads to social tensions, as people perceive their economic circumstances as unfair, fueling protests and movements for change. The rise of economic inequality has been a significant factor in various social movements, highlighting the relationship between financial disparity and collective action among students and workers.

Wealth Gap: The wealth gap is the difference in wealth between different segments of the population, often highlighting the stark contrast between the rich and the poor.

Income Distribution: Income distribution is the way in which total income is divided among individuals or groups in society, which can reveal patterns of economic inequality.

Social Mobility: Social mobility refers to the ability of individuals or families to move up or down the socioeconomic ladder, often affected by economic inequality.

Euroskepticism refers to the criticism and opposition towards the European Union (EU) and European integration, often stemming from concerns about national sovereignty, economic policies, and immigration. This term is linked to a growing sentiment among certain political groups and movements that advocate for reduced EU influence on member states, reflecting broader populist trends in Europe.

Populism: A political approach that seeks to represent the interests of ordinary people, often contrasting them against an elite establishment.

Nationalism: A political ideology that emphasizes the interests of a particular nation, often prioritizing national sovereignty over international cooperation.

Brexit: The term used to describe the United Kingdom's referendum decision in 2016 to leave the European Union, which was significantly influenced by euroskeptic sentiments.

Cultural anxiety refers to the feelings of uncertainty, fear, and discomfort that arise in response to rapid changes in cultural identity, social norms, and national values. This phenomenon often emerges during periods of significant political, economic, or social transformation, leading individuals and groups to feel threatened by perceived threats to their way of life. Such anxiety can manifest in various ways, including the rise of populist movements that seek to reclaim national identity and address concerns over immigration, globalization, and social integration.

Populism: A political approach that seeks to represent the interests of ordinary people against a perceived elite or establishment.

Nationalism: A political ideology that emphasizes the interests and culture of a particular nation, often in opposition to foreign influence or globalization.

Xenophobia: An irrational fear or dislike of people from other countries or cultures, often manifesting as hostility towards immigrants.

Populist support refers to the backing that political movements receive from individuals who feel marginalized, disillusioned, or disconnected from traditional political elites and institutions. This type of support often emphasizes the idea of 'the people' against 'the elite' and seeks to address perceived injustices, leading to a rise in movements that advocate for nationalist, anti-establishment, or anti-immigrant sentiments across Europe.

Nationalism: A political ideology that emphasizes the interests of a particular nation or ethnic group, often advocating for self-governance and prioritizing national identity over international cooperation.

Anti-Establishment: A sentiment or movement opposing the established political system, often characterized by criticism of political elites and institutions perceived as corrupt or out of touch with the needs of ordinary citizens.

Populism: A political approach that seeks to represent the interests of ordinary people, often contrasting them with the elite; populism can be found on both the left and right of the political spectrum.

The National Front is a far-right political party in France, founded in 1972, that emphasizes nationalism, anti-immigration policies, and Euroscepticism. It gained prominence by capitalizing on public discontent with traditional political parties and social issues such as unemployment and immigration, positioning itself as a voice for those feeling marginalized by globalization and multiculturalism.

Populism: A political approach that seeks to represent the interests of ordinary people, often contrasting them against a perceived elite or establishment.

Euroscepticism: A critical stance towards the European Union and its policies, advocating for reduced EU influence over national sovereignty.

Far-right: A political ideology characterized by extreme nationalism, opposition to immigration, and often authoritarian tendencies.

Traditional values refer to the long-standing beliefs, customs, and social norms that shape the behavior and expectations of individuals within a society. These values often emphasize family, community, religion, and national identity, and play a significant role in shaping political ideologies and movements, especially during times of change or crisis.

Populism: A political approach that seeks to represent the interests of ordinary people, often against the established elite or mainstream parties.

Nationalism: A political ideology that emphasizes the interests and culture of a particular nation, often in opposition to foreign influence or immigration.

Conservatism: A political philosophy that promotes retaining traditional social institutions and values, often advocating for gradual change rather than radical reforms.

Cultural preservation refers to the efforts made to protect, maintain, and promote the cultural heritage of a community or society, including traditions, languages, arts, and historical sites. In recent years, this concept has gained attention in response to globalization and the rise of populist movements that emphasize national identity and the importance of local culture. This focus on cultural preservation often intersects with issues of migration, social cohesion, and political discourse.

Cultural Heritage: The legacy of physical artifacts and intangible attributes of a group or society inherited from past generations.

Nationalism: A political ideology that emphasizes the interests of a particular nation, often prioritizing national culture and identity over others.

Populism: A political approach that seeks to represent the interests of ordinary people, often contrasting them against a perceived elite.

Economic protectionism is a policy approach that involves the use of tariffs, trade barriers, and regulations to shield a country's domestic industries from foreign competition. This strategy is often embraced by populist movements as a means to promote local jobs and safeguard national interests, especially during times of economic uncertainty or globalization.

Tariffs: Taxes imposed on imported goods to raise their prices and make domestic products more competitive.

Trade Barriers: Regulatory measures, such as quotas and import licenses, that restrict or control the amount of foreign goods entering a country.

Populism: A political approach that seeks to represent the interests of ordinary people, often contrasting them against a perceived elite or establishment.

Alternative for Germany (AfD) is a right-wing populist political party in Germany that was founded in 2013, primarily in response to the European debt crisis and rising immigration. It aims to represent national interests and promotes anti-immigrant and Eurosceptic sentiments, aligning with the broader rise of populist movements across Europe that challenge traditional political establishments.

Populism: A political approach that seeks to represent the interests of ordinary people, often against a perceived corrupt elite, and can manifest across various ideologies.

Euroscepticism: A critical or skeptical stance towards the European Union and its policies, often advocating for reduced European integration and greater national sovereignty.

Far-right: A political ideology characterized by extreme nationalism, anti-immigration policies, and a rejection of established political norms, often linked to xenophobia and authoritarianism.

Social welfare programs are government initiatives designed to provide financial aid and support services to individuals and families in need, aiming to promote social well-being and reduce poverty. These programs often include unemployment benefits, healthcare services, housing assistance, and food aid, and they reflect a commitment to social justice and the protection of vulnerable populations within society.

Universal Basic Income: A financial policy that guarantees all citizens a regular, unconditional sum of money from the government regardless of other income.

Social Insurance: A system in which individuals contribute to a fund that provides them with benefits in times of need, such as unemployment or disability.

Means-Tested Programs: Welfare programs that require applicants to demonstrate financial need before receiving assistance, ensuring resources are allocated to those who need it most.

Wealth redistribution refers to the transfer of wealth and resources from one group or individual to another, often through government policies aimed at reducing economic inequality. This process can involve taxation, social welfare programs, and other mechanisms that aim to provide greater economic balance within society. Wealth redistribution is often a central theme in discussions about populist movements, as these movements frequently address concerns over economic disparities and advocate for policies that favor the working class.

Progressive Taxation: A tax system where the tax rate increases as the taxable amount increases, effectively placing a larger financial burden on wealthier individuals to help fund public services.

Social Welfare Programs: Government initiatives designed to provide financial assistance and support services to individuals and families in need, aiming to alleviate poverty and improve living standards.

Income Inequality: The unequal distribution of income within a population, which can lead to significant disparities in wealth and access to resources.

Podemos is a left-wing political party in Spain founded in January 2014 that emerged from grassroots movements advocating for social justice, anti-austerity policies, and participatory democracy. Its name translates to 'We Can,' reflecting its focus on empowering ordinary citizens and challenging established political elites. The party's rise symbolizes a broader trend of populist movements across Europe, which capitalize on public discontent with traditional political structures.

Populism: A political approach that seeks to represent the interests of ordinary people, often by contrasting them against a perceived corrupt elite.

Anti-austerity: Political and economic movements that oppose austerity measures, which typically involve cuts to public spending and social services as a response to financial crises.

Grassroots movement: A type of social or political movement that starts at a local level and is driven by the community's participation rather than from top-down initiatives.

Syriza is a left-wing political party in Greece, officially known as the Coalition of the Radical Left, that emerged in the early 2000s and gained prominence during the Greek debt crisis. The party is known for its anti-austerity stance, advocating for social justice, and a more equitable economic model, which resonated with many Greeks facing severe economic hardships.

Austerity: Economic policies aimed at reducing government deficits through spending cuts, tax increases, or a combination of both, often implemented during economic crises.

Troika: The trio of international lenders consisting of the European Commission, the European Central Bank, and the International Monetary Fund that provided bailout packages to Greece during its financial crisis.

Populism: A political approach that seeks to represent the interests of ordinary people, often by contrasting them against a perceived elite or establishment.

Urban youth refers to young individuals living in metropolitan areas, often characterized by their unique cultural, social, and economic experiences shaped by the complexities of city life. This group has been pivotal in shaping modern social movements, particularly in the context of political activism and the rise of populist movements across Europe, as they frequently express dissatisfaction with established political structures and seek change.

Youth Culture: The set of values, norms, and practices that emerge among young people, often distinct from older generations and reflective of their experiences and challenges.

Populism: A political approach that seeks to represent the interests of ordinary people against the elite, often leveraging emotions and grassroots mobilization.

Social Movements: Collective efforts by groups of people to bring about social or political change, often driven by shared grievances or aspirations.

Marine Le Pen is a French politician and lawyer who has been a prominent figure in the rise of populist movements in Europe, particularly as the leader of the National Rally party, previously known as the National Front. She is known for her strong nationalist and anti-immigration stance, advocating for policies that prioritize French citizens and sovereignty, which resonates with a significant segment of the French population disillusioned with traditional political parties.

National Rally: A far-right political party in France founded by Marine Le Pen's father, Jean-Marie Le Pen, which focuses on nationalism, anti-immigration policies, and Euroscepticism.

Populism: A political approach that seeks to represent the interests of ordinary people against the elite, often characterized by a rhetoric that emphasizes national identity and skepticism towards immigration.

Euroscepticism: A critical attitude towards the European Union and its policies, often advocating for reduced EU influence over national governance.

The Five Star Movement is an Italian populist political party founded in 2009, known for its anti-establishment stance and advocacy for direct democracy, environmental sustainability, and social justice. It emerged as a response to widespread dissatisfaction with traditional political parties in Italy, gaining significant support by appealing to voters' frustrations with corruption and economic issues.

Populism: A political approach that seeks to represent the interests and concerns of ordinary people, often contrasting them against the elite or establishment.

Direct Democracy: A form of democracy in which people vote directly on laws and policies rather than through elected representatives.

Luigi Di Maio: An Italian politician and prominent member of the Five Star Movement, who served as Minister of Economic Development and later as Foreign Minister.

Anti-establishment refers to a political ideology and social movement that opposes the established authority, institutions, and elites in society. This term embodies a sentiment against the status quo, advocating for reform or radical change, often driven by the belief that current systems are corrupt or unrepresentative of the people's needs. The rise of this sentiment has been particularly notable during cultural revolutions and the emergence of populist movements, where marginalized voices seek to challenge traditional power structures.

Populism: A political approach that seeks to represent the interests of ordinary people against the elite or established institutions.

Counterculture: A cultural movement that actively rejects and opposes the dominant societal norms and values, often emerging in response to perceived injustices.

Grassroots Movement: A political movement driven by the community's involvement and advocacy, emphasizing local engagement and participation in decision-making.

Fidesz, or the Alliance of Young Democrats, is a right-wing populist political party in Hungary, founded in 1988. The party has gained prominence for its nationalistic rhetoric, anti-immigration stance, and efforts to consolidate power within Hungary's political framework, which reflect broader trends of populist movements rising across Europe.

Populism: A political approach that seeks to represent the interests of ordinary people against the elite, often characterized by charismatic leadership and a direct appeal to the public.

Orbanism: The political philosophy associated with Viktor Orbán, Hungary's Prime Minister and leader of Fidesz, emphasizing nationalism, conservative social values, and strong state control over the economy and media.

Illiberal Democracy: A governing system that retains the basic structures of democracy, such as elections, but undermines civil liberties and democratic institutions, often seen in the context of Fidesz's rule in Hungary.

Viktor Orbán is a Hungarian politician who has served as the Prime Minister of Hungary since 2010, having previously held the same position from 1998 to 2002. He is a prominent figure in European politics known for his nationalist and populist policies, which have led to significant changes in Hungary's political landscape and its relationship with institutions like NATO and the EU.

Fidesz: A Hungarian political party founded by Orbán, known for its conservative and right-wing positions, which has dominated Hungarian politics since 2010.

Populism: A political approach that seeks to represent the interests of ordinary people, often characterized by anti-establishment sentiments and a focus on national sovereignty.

Illiberal Democracy: A political system where democratic institutions exist but are undermined by authoritarian practices, often seen in Orbán's governance model in Hungary.

The Law and Justice Party (PiS) is a conservative political party in Poland founded in 2001, known for its nationalist agenda and emphasis on traditional values. It gained significant power in the mid-2010s, capitalizing on public discontent with the political establishment and economic conditions, which are hallmarks of the broader populist movements seen across Europe during this time.

Populism: A political approach that seeks to represent the interests of ordinary people, often contrasting them against a perceived elite or establishment.

Nationalism: A political ideology that emphasizes the interests and culture of a particular nation, often leading to a desire for national sovereignty and self-determination.

Judicial Reforms: Changes made to the judicial system aimed at increasing governmental control over the judiciary, often criticized for undermining judicial independence.

Brexit refers to the United Kingdom's (UK) decision to leave the European Union (EU), following a referendum held on June 23, 2016. This significant political event reflects the rise of populist movements across Europe, fueled by sentiments of nationalism, anti-immigration, and disillusionment with established political institutions and globalization.

European Union: A political and economic union of 27 European countries that are located primarily in Europe, established to promote integration and cooperation among its member states.

Populism: A political approach that strives to represent the interests of ordinary people, often by opposing the elite or establishment, and is characterized by charismatic leaders and a focus on national sovereignty.

Referendum: A direct vote in which an entire electorate is invited to vote on a particular proposal and can result in the adoption of a new law or policy, often used for major political decisions like Brexit.

Corrupt elites refer to a small group of powerful individuals or leaders who engage in unethical practices for personal gain, often undermining the democratic processes and institutions that govern society. Their actions contribute to widespread disillusionment among the public, creating fertile ground for populist movements that position themselves as alternatives to these established authorities. This term highlights the perceived disconnect between the elites and the general population, exacerbating social and economic inequalities.

Populism: A political approach that seeks to represent the interests of ordinary people against the established elite or authority.

Political Disillusionment: A feeling of disappointment and disenchantment with political institutions and leaders, often leading to a lack of trust in government.

Cronyism: The practice of favoring friends or associates in political appointments or business contracts, often resulting in corruption.

Social media refers to digital platforms that enable users to create, share, and exchange content, as well as to engage in social networking. These platforms have revolutionized communication and information dissemination, allowing for rapid interaction and the mobilization of communities around specific causes, including political movements. In the context of rising populist movements across Europe, social media plays a crucial role in shaping public opinion, facilitating grassroots organizing, and amplifying the voices of populist leaders and their supporters.

digital activism: The use of digital tools and platforms to advocate for social or political change, often leveraging social media to mobilize support and spread awareness.

echo chamber: A situation in which beliefs are reinforced by repeated exposure to similar viewpoints through social media, creating an environment where dissenting opinions are minimized.

disinformation: False or misleading information spread intentionally, often through social media, to manipulate public perception or advance specific agendas.

Nativism is an ideological perspective that prioritizes the interests and culture of native-born inhabitants over those of immigrants, often fostering a sense of nationalism and cultural homogeneity. This mindset can lead to the rejection of foreign influence and the promotion of policies that favor native populations, which has become increasingly prominent with the rise of populist movements in Europe. Nativism often manifests in anti-immigrant sentiment, advocating for stricter immigration laws and a preference for local customs and values.

Populism: A political approach that seeks to represent the interests of ordinary people, often against a perceived elite, which can include nativist sentiments.

Nationalism: An ideology that emphasizes loyalty to one's nation and culture, often aligning closely with nativist beliefs by promoting the idea that national identity should be preserved.

Xenophobia: An irrational fear or dislike of people from other countries, closely related to nativism as it fosters hostility toward immigrants.

Cultural change refers to the transformation of cultural practices, beliefs, and social norms within a society over time. This process can result from various factors such as globalization, technological advancements, political shifts, and social movements, leading to new ways of thinking and living. In the context of rising populist movements across Europe, cultural change often reflects a reaction to perceived threats from immigration, globalization, and loss of national identity.

Populism: A political approach that seeks to represent the interests of ordinary people, often characterized by opposition to the elite and established institutions.

Nationalism: A strong identification with and devotion to one's nation, often resulting in a desire for independence or self-governance.

Social Movements: Collective efforts by groups of people to promote or resist change in society, often focused on issues like civil rights, environmentalism, or labor rights.

Terrorism refers to the unlawful use of violence and intimidation, especially against civilians, in the pursuit of political aims. It is often employed by non-state actors to instill fear, provoke social change, or challenge existing power structures. The rise of terrorism has been closely linked to various sociopolitical movements and has influenced public perception and policy responses across different nations.

Radicalization: The process by which individuals or groups come to adopt extreme political, social, or religious ideologies, often leading to the justification of violence.

Extremism: The holding of extreme political or religious views that may advocate for violence or the rejection of democratic principles.

Guerrilla Warfare: A form of irregular warfare in which small groups use tactics such as ambushes and sabotage to fight larger traditional forces, often associated with terrorist activities.

Crime rates refer to the frequency of crimes reported in a given area, often expressed as the number of crimes per 1,000 or 100,000 people. Understanding crime rates is essential for analyzing social issues and can reveal insights into the public's perception of safety and the effectiveness of law enforcement. In recent years, fluctuations in crime rates have played a significant role in shaping political discourse and influencing populist movements across Europe, as these movements often capitalize on public concerns about crime and security to gain support.

public safety: The welfare and protection of the general public, often a key concern for government policies and law enforcement.

populism: A political approach that seeks to represent the interests and concerns of ordinary people, often in opposition to the elite or established institutions.

law enforcement: The system of police and agencies responsible for enforcing laws, maintaining public order, and preventing crime.

Economic insecurity refers to the uncertainty and anxiety individuals or groups feel regarding their financial stability, job security, and access to essential resources. This sense of insecurity often arises during periods of economic downturns, increasing unemployment rates, and fluctuating markets, leading to heightened concerns about one’s future well-being. This widespread unease can foster a fertile ground for populist movements, as disillusioned citizens seek solutions and scapegoats for their struggles.

populism: A political approach that seeks to represent the interests of ordinary people, often contrasting them against an elite or established order.

economic inequality: The unequal distribution of income and opportunity among different groups in society, often contributing to feelings of economic insecurity.

welfare state: A government system that provides social and economic support to its citizens, aiming to reduce poverty and economic insecurity.