8.1 The German Confederation and Early Unification Attempts
4 min read•july 30, 2024
The , established in 1815, was a loose alliance of 39 German states that replaced the Holy Roman Empire. It struggled with internal tensions between Austria and Prussia, while facing challenges from liberal and nationalist movements pushing for greater unity and reforms.
The customs union, led by Prussia, played a crucial role in economic integration. Meanwhile, the 1848 revolutions highlighted the growing desire for national unity, but ultimately failed due to deep divisions and resistance from established powers. These early attempts laid the groundwork for future unification efforts.
German Confederation: Structure and Challenges
Political Organization and Power Dynamics
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- German Confederation established in 1815 as loose association of 39 German states replaced former Holy Roman Empire
- Austria held permanent presidency of Confederate Diet exerted significant influence over confederation's affairs
- Confederate Diet based in Frankfurt served as central decision-making body but lacked real enforcement power over member states
- Confederation struggled to balance interests of dominant powers Austria and Prussia often resulting in political deadlock
- Smaller German states frequently aligned with either Austria or Prussia creating complex system of alliances and rivalries
- Examples: Saxony often aligned with Austria, while Hanover tended to side with Prussia
Internal Tensions and External Weaknesses
- Liberal and nationalist movements within confederation pushed for greater unity and constitutional reforms
- Challenged conservative order established by Congress of Vienna
- Hambach Festival of 1832 demonstrated growing nationalist sentiment
- Lack of unified military force hindered confederation's ability to act cohesively on international stage
- Each state maintained its own army leading to fragmented defense capabilities
- Absence of common foreign policy further weakened confederation's international standing
- Individual states often pursued divergent diplomatic strategies (Prussia's neutrality during Crimean War)
Economic Factors for Unification
Zollverein and Economic Integration
- Zollverein customs union established 1834 under Prussian leadership eliminated internal tariffs and standardized external tariffs
- Prussia strategically expanded Zollverein gradually excluded Austria shifted economic power dynamics within German Confederation
- Zollverein facilitated increased trade and economic integration among German states fostered sense of shared economic interests
- Examples: Reduced trade barriers led to growth in inter-state commerce (textiles, coal)
- Development of common currency system within Zollverein laid groundwork for future monetary unification
- Prussian Thaler became de facto standard currency for many Zollverein members
Industrialization and Infrastructure Development
- Industrialization and growth of railway networks further integrated German economy created interdependencies between states
- Examples: Ruhr Valley emerged as industrial powerhouse, connected to other regions by expanding rail network
- Economic cooperation through Zollverein helped overcome traditional rivalries between German states particularly in northern and central Germany
- Exclusion of Austria from Zollverein weakened its influence over other German states strengthened Prussia's position as potential unifying force
- Austrian attempts to create rival customs union (Steuerverein) ultimately failed
Revolutions of 1848 and Unification
Revolutionary Aspirations and Challenges
- Revolutions of 1848 in German states driven by liberal and nationalist ideals called for greater political freedoms and German unification
- Frankfurt Parliament convened May 1848 attempted to draft constitution for unified Germany highlighted growing desire for national unity
- Debates within Frankfurt Parliament revealed deep divisions over unification approaches:
- "Großdeutsche Lösung" (greater German solution) including Austria
- "Kleindeutsche Lösung" (lesser German solution) excluding Austria
- Offer of imperial crown to Frederick William IV of Prussia and his subsequent rejection marked significant setback for unification movement
- Frederick William IV famously referred to the crown as coming "from the gutter"
Aftermath and Long-term Impact
- Failure of 1848 revolutions led to period of reaction many German states reverted to authoritarian rule suppressed liberal and nationalist movements
- Examples: Prussia introduced restrictive Three-Class Franchise System, Baden crushed republican uprising
- Revolutionary experience demonstrated challenges of reconciling diverse regional interests and resistance of established powers to radical change
- Despite failure 1848 revolution laid important groundwork for future unification efforts by:
- Articulating vision of German national identity
- Promoting idea of constitutional governance
- Inspiring future generations of German nationalists (Karl Schurz, Gustav von Struve)
Key Figures in Unification Attempts
Monarchs and Statesmen
- of Prussia played crucial role in 1848 unification attempt:
- Rejected "crown from the gutter" offered by Frankfurt Parliament
- Based decision on belief in divine right of kings and reluctance to accept crown not bestowed by other German princes
- Friedrich Wilhelm IV's conservative stance and loyalty to existing order of German states hindered more progressive unification efforts
- Austrian Chancellor 's conservative influence in pre-1848 period significantly shaped political landscape of German Confederation
- Metternich system emphasized maintaining status quo and suppressing liberal nationalist movements
Liberal Leaders and Intellectuals
- president of Frankfurt Parliament advocated for constitutional monarchy under Prussian leadership
- Liberal leaders mobilized popular support for unification and constitutional reforms during 1848 revolutions:
- organized workers and artisans in Leipzig
- led Baden uprising advocating for republican form of government
- Philosophical contributions of intellectuals shaped ideological foundations of German nationalism:
- 's "Addresses to the German Nation" promoted idea of unique German cultural identity
- 's patriotic poetry and writings inspired nationalist sentiment among German people
Key Terms to Review (23)
Austro-Prussian War: The Austro-Prussian War, fought in 1866, was a conflict between the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Empire that led to the decisive defeat of Austria and significantly altered the balance of power in Central Europe. This war was crucial for the unification of Germany under Prussian leadership and set the stage for further conflicts in the region.
Bundesrat: The bundesrat is a legislative body in Germany, consisting of representatives from the federal states (Länder), that plays a crucial role in the federal legislative process. Established in the context of the German Confederation, the bundesrat serves to ensure that the interests of the individual states are represented at the national level, influencing legislation and governance in a way that reflects regional concerns.
Bundestag: The Bundestag is the lower house of Germany's parliament, established in 1848 during the revolutions of that year and representing the interests of the German people in the political process. It played a significant role within the framework of the German Confederation, where it was tasked with facilitating cooperation among the German states and addressing issues of common concern as early unification attempts unfolded.
Ernst Moritz Arndt: Ernst Moritz Arndt was a prominent German nationalist poet, historian, and political writer in the 19th century who played a significant role in the cultural and political movements leading to German unification. His works often emphasized themes of national identity, liberty, and the importance of unity among the German states, making him a key figure in early unification attempts and the broader context of the German Confederation.
Franco-Prussian War: The Franco-Prussian War was a conflict between France and Prussia from 1870 to 1871, which ultimately led to the unification of Germany under Prussian leadership. This war was characterized by military innovation and rapid mobilization, resulting in a decisive Prussian victory that reshaped the political landscape of Europe.
Friedrich Hecker: Friedrich Hecker was a prominent German revolutionary and politician during the mid-19th century, known for his role in the 1848 revolutions that sought to unify Germany and establish a democratic government. Hecker's efforts highlighted the growing desire for political reform and national unity among various German states, which were part of the broader context of the German Confederation's early unification attempts.
Friedrich Wilhelm IV: Friedrich Wilhelm IV was the King of Prussia from 1840 until his abdication in 1861, known for his conservative policies and his role during the turbulent years of the German revolutions. His reign saw attempts to unify Germany and a struggle between liberal and conservative forces, impacting the broader narrative of early unification efforts.
German Confederation: The German Confederation was a loose association of 39 German-speaking states established in 1815 after the Congress of Vienna. It was formed to coordinate the economies and military efforts of the member states, while also serving as a response to the political changes in Europe following the Napoleonic Wars. This confederation played a crucial role in the early attempts at German unification and set the stage for future nationalist movements.
German Romanticism: German Romanticism was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that emerged in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, emphasizing individualism, emotion, nature, and the glorification of the past. This movement played a crucial role in shaping the cultural and national identity of Germany during a time of political fragmentation and early unification attempts, reflecting a desire for unity and a shared heritage among the German people.
Giuseppe Mazzini: Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian politician, journalist, and activist who played a crucial role in the unification of Italy and the promotion of republicanism in the 19th century. He was a key figure in early Italian nationalist movements, advocating for a united Italy based on the principles of democracy and national identity. His vision of nationalism emphasized the importance of a collective national spirit and a government that represented the will of the people, which influenced many future leaders and movements across Europe.
Heinrich von Gagern: Heinrich von Gagern was a prominent German politician and a leading advocate for German unification during the early 19th century. He played a significant role in the Frankfurt Assembly of 1848, which aimed to establish a unified German nation-state and promote liberal reforms. His efforts highlighted the growing desire among various German states for unity and political reform amid the backdrop of the German Confederation.
Industrial Revolution: The Industrial Revolution was a period of significant economic, technological, and social change that began in the late 18th century and continued into the 19th century, characterized by the transition from agrarian economies to industrialized and urbanized societies. This transformation brought about advances in manufacturing processes, transportation, and communication, which had profound impacts on society and laid the groundwork for modern economies.
Johann Gottlieb Fichte: Johann Gottlieb Fichte was a German philosopher and a prominent figure in the development of German Idealism during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. His ideas about nationalism and the nature of self-consciousness were influential in shaping the intellectual landscape of the German Confederation, particularly during the early unification attempts that sought to create a cohesive national identity.
Klemens von Metternich: Klemens von Metternich was an influential Austrian diplomat and statesman who played a pivotal role in European politics during the early 19th century, particularly known for his efforts at the Congress of Vienna. His vision of a balance of power and conservative restoration significantly shaped the political landscape of Europe following the fall of Napoleon and influenced unification attempts in Germany and the conservative order that emerged afterward.
Pan-Germanism: Pan-Germanism is a political and cultural ideology that advocates for the unification of all German-speaking peoples into a single nation-state. This movement emerged in the 19th century, fueled by nationalist sentiments, and played a significant role in the wars that ultimately led to the establishment of the German Empire.
Realpolitik: Realpolitik refers to a pragmatic and pragmatic approach to politics that prioritizes practical considerations and outcomes over ideological or moral principles. This approach often involves the use of power, diplomacy, and strategic alliances to achieve national interests, reflecting a belief that the ends justify the means.
Robert Blum: Robert Blum was a prominent German politician and revolutionary leader during the 1848 Revolutions, known for his advocacy of democratic reforms and German unification. His role in the Frankfurt Assembly and his vision for a unified Germany made him a significant figure in early unification attempts, reflecting the broader nationalistic sentiments of the time.
Romantic nationalism: Romantic nationalism is a political and cultural ideology that emerged in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, emphasizing the importance of national identity, culture, and history, often intertwining emotions with the notion of the nation. It is characterized by a deep appreciation for folk traditions, language, and the natural landscape, as well as a belief in the unity of people who share a common heritage. This ideology played a significant role in shaping national movements and artistic expressions during a time of significant change in Europe.
Treaty of Frankfurt: The Treaty of Frankfurt, signed on May 10, 1871, marked the end of the Franco-Prussian War and resulted in the formal unification of Germany under Prussian leadership. This treaty not only solidified the power of the German Empire but also had significant repercussions for European politics, particularly in relation to nationalist movements and international tensions.
Treaty of Prague: The Treaty of Prague, signed on August 23, 1866, was a peace agreement that marked the end of the Austro-Prussian War. This treaty not only solidified Prussia's dominance in German affairs but also led to significant political changes in the German Confederation and laid the groundwork for the unification of Germany under Prussian leadership.
Urbanization: Urbanization is the process by which rural areas transform into urban centers, marked by a significant increase in population density and the growth of cities. This shift has profound implications on social structures, economic practices, and cultural dynamics, as people migrate to cities in search of better employment opportunities, leading to both opportunities and challenges.
Young Germany Movement: The Young Germany Movement was a literary and cultural movement in the 1830s and 1840s that aimed to promote liberal ideas and national unity in the context of German society. It was characterized by its emphasis on individualism, social reform, and a break from traditional norms, which connected it to the broader aspirations for unification and modernization in the fragmented German states during this period.
Zollverein: The Zollverein was a customs union established in 1834 that included numerous German states, aimed at creating a free trade area and reducing tariffs among its members. This economic collaboration not only facilitated trade but also helped to foster a sense of shared identity and unity among the German states, laying the groundwork for future political unification efforts in the 19th century. By promoting economic interdependence, the Zollverein played a crucial role in the rise of nationalism and liberalism within Germany.