6.1 The Eastern Question and Ottoman Decline
3 min read•july 30, 2024
The Ottoman Empire's decline in the 19th century created a power vacuum in Eastern Europe and the Middle East. This "Eastern Question" became a major concern for European powers, who sought to protect their interests and expand their influence in the region.
The (1853-1856) highlighted the complex dynamics of the Eastern Question. European nations balanced their desire to contain Russian expansion with their own ambitions, leading to shifting alliances and diplomatic maneuvering that would shape the continent's future.
Ottoman Empire's Decline
Territorial and Political Challenges
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- Ottoman Empire lost strategic regions through independence movements
- Greek War of Independence (1821-1832) resulted in an autonomous Greek state
- Serbia gained autonomy in 1817 and full independence by 1878
- Ineffective governance and corruption hindered modernization efforts
- (1839-1876) failed to address systemic issues
- Bureaucratic resistance impeded implementation of necessary changes
- among ethnic minorities increased internal tensions
- (Bulgaria, Romania) experienced growing separatist movements
- saw rising discontent with Ottoman rule
Economic and Military Weaknesses
- Outdated agricultural practices limited economic growth
- Lack of mechanization in farming (ox-drawn plows, hand harvesting)
- Inefficient land tenure systems (feudal-like arrangements)
- Limited industrialization compared to European powers
- Few factories and industrial centers (textile mills in Bursa)
- Reliance on imports for manufactured goods
- Financial instability led to the "" label
- Heavy reliance on foreign loans (from Britain, France)
- Debt defaults and establishment of Ottoman Public Debt Administration (1881)
- Military defeats exposed technological backwardness
- (1877-1878) resulted in significant territorial losses
- Outdated weaponry and tactics (muzzle-loading rifles, inadequate officer training)
- undermined economic sovereignty
- European merchants received preferential treatment (lower tariffs, extraterritoriality)
- Ottoman industries struggled to compete with foreign goods
European Interests in the Ottoman Empire
Strategic and Territorial Ambitions
- Russia sought warm-water ports and Balkan influence
- Aimed to control and straits for naval access
- Supported Slavic nationalist movements in the Balkans (Serbia, Bulgaria)
- Britain maintained Ottoman Empire as a buffer against Russia
- Protected trade routes to India (overland routes, Suez Canal)
- Occupied Cyprus (1878) and Egypt (1882) to secure Mediterranean positions
- Austria-Hungary expanded influence in the Balkans
- Occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina (1878)
- Competed with Russia for influence in Serbia and Montenegro
Economic and Cultural Interests
- France pursued influence in the Levant
- Established strong presence in Lebanon and Syria
- Competed with Britain for control over Egypt (Suez Canal)
- Prussia (later Germany) increased economic involvement
- Invested in Ottoman infrastructure (Baghdad Railway)
- Provided military advisors to modernize Ottoman army
- Italy sought footholds in North Africa and Mediterranean
- Occupied Libya (1911-1912)
- Controlled Dodecanese Islands (1912)
Eastern Question and European Diplomacy
Diplomatic Conflicts and Alliances
- Crimean War (1853-1856) demonstrated complex European rivalries
- Britain and France allied with Ottoman Empire against Russia
- Resulted in the (1856), temporarily limiting Russian expansion
- (1878) redrew borders in the Balkans
- Reduced Russian gains from the Russo-Turkish War
- Recognized independence of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro
- Formation of new alliances reshaped European politics
- (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia) formed in 1873
- between Germany and Austria-Hungary established in 1879
Power Vacuum and Imperial Competition
- Ottoman decline created opportunities for European expansion
- Increased competition for influence in the Balkans and Middle East
- Led to "scramble" for colonial possessions (North Africa, Arabia)
- Maintaining Ottoman territorial integrity became a diplomatic paradox
- European powers officially supported Ottoman sovereignty
- Simultaneously sought to exploit Ottoman weaknesses for their own gain
- Eastern Question exacerbated tensions leading to World War I
- Balkan conflicts (Bosnian Crisis of 1908, Balkan Wars 1912-1913)
- Competing interests in the Ottoman Empire contributed to alliance systems
Key Terms to Review (21)
Arab Provinces: The Arab Provinces were territories within the Ottoman Empire where Arabic-speaking populations resided, primarily located in the Levant, the Arabian Peninsula, and parts of North Africa. These provinces played a significant role in the Eastern Question, particularly during the decline of the Ottoman Empire as nationalism and independence movements began to emerge among their inhabitants.
Balkan Regions: The Balkan regions refer to a geographical area in Southeast Europe that includes countries such as Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, and Slovenia. This area has historically been a crossroads of cultures and empires, deeply affected by the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the rise of nationalism, which were central to the Eastern Question.
Bosphorus: The Bosphorus is a narrow strait located in northwestern Turkey that connects the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara, and thus separates Europe from Asia. It has been a crucial waterway for trade and military strategy throughout history, particularly during the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the Eastern Question, as control over this strait was vital for regional power dynamics.
Capitulations System: The capitulations system refers to a series of treaties and agreements that granted foreign powers special privileges and legal immunities within the Ottoman Empire. These agreements allowed European nations to exert significant influence over trade and legal matters, which contributed to the decline of the Ottoman state's authority and control over its own territory.
Colonialism: Colonialism is a practice where a country establishes control over foreign territories, exploiting their resources and population for economic gain. It often involves the settlement of colonizers in the new territory, leading to significant cultural, social, and political changes both in the colonized regions and the colonizers' home country. The effects of colonialism are far-reaching, influencing global power dynamics, economies, and societal structures.
Concert of Europe: The Concert of Europe was a diplomatic agreement among the major European powers in the early 19th century aimed at maintaining the balance of power and preventing the rise of another Napoleon. It was established after the Napoleonic Wars to ensure stability and cooperation among nations through regular meetings and consultations, influencing European politics significantly during its existence.
Congress of Berlin: The Congress of Berlin was a diplomatic meeting held in 1878 among the Great Powers of Europe, aimed at addressing the political and territorial disputes arising from the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the subsequent conflicts in the Balkans. This congress played a pivotal role in redefining national boundaries and balancing power in Europe, as various nations sought to assert their interests amid rising nationalism and international tensions.
Crimean War: The Crimean War was a military conflict fought from 1853 to 1856, primarily between the Russian Empire and an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, France, Britain, and Sardinia. It arose from disputes over territories and the declining influence of the Ottoman Empire, known as the Eastern Question, and it had significant ramifications for European politics and nationalism, particularly in relation to Italian unification efforts led by figures such as Cavour and Garibaldi.
Dardanelles: The Dardanelles is a narrow strait in northwestern Turkey that connects the Aegean Sea to the Sea of Marmara. It holds significant strategic importance as a vital waterway for naval and trade routes, particularly during the 19th century when it became a focal point in the geopolitical struggles involving the declining Ottoman Empire and the interests of European powers.
Dual Alliance: The Dual Alliance was a military alliance formed in 1879 between Germany and Austria-Hungary, aimed at countering the threat posed by Russia. This agreement solidified the relationship between the two empires and played a crucial role in shaping European diplomacy leading up to World War I. It was part of a series of alliances that marked a shift towards more complex and entangled international relations during this period.
Emergence of national identities: The emergence of national identities refers to the process by which groups of people come to identify themselves as part of a distinct nation, often characterized by shared culture, language, history, and aspirations. This process was significant during the 19th century, particularly in the context of the decline of empires, as various ethnic and cultural groups sought recognition and autonomy within a larger national framework.
Imperial Competition: Imperial competition refers to the rivalry among major powers to expand their empires and influence across territories, often leading to conflicts and shifting alliances. This competition intensified in the 19th century, particularly regarding the decline of the Ottoman Empire, as European powers sought to capitalize on its weakening state and expand their own territories and spheres of influence in Eastern Europe and the Middle East.
Nationalism: Nationalism is a political ideology that emphasizes the interests, culture, and identity of a particular nation or group of people. It often promotes the idea that individuals should be loyal to their nation and work towards its independence and self-determination, which can lead to significant social and political changes within a country or across regions.
Russo-Turkish War: The Russo-Turkish War refers to a series of conflicts between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire during the 18th and 19th centuries, primarily over territorial disputes and influence in Eastern Europe and the Balkans. These wars were significant in highlighting the declining power of the Ottoman Empire and the rising ambitions of Russia as it sought to expand its territory and influence, particularly over the Black Sea and the Balkans.
Secularization: Secularization refers to the process through which religious institutions, practices, and beliefs lose their social significance and influence over public life. In the context of the Ottoman Empire during its decline, secularization became an essential aspect as the empire sought modernization and reform in response to internal challenges and external pressures.
Sick Man of Europe: The term 'Sick Man of Europe' refers to the declining state of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century as it faced numerous internal and external challenges. This phrase encapsulates the empire's inability to modernize and maintain its territorial integrity amidst rising nationalist movements, economic instability, and military defeats, which attracted the attention and intervention of European powers eager to capitalize on its weakness.
Slavic Nationalism: Slavic nationalism refers to the political and cultural movement aimed at promoting the interests and identity of Slavic peoples in Europe. This movement emerged during the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, as various Slavic groups sought to assert their national identities and gain independence from imperial control.
Tanzimat Reforms: The Tanzimat Reforms were a series of significant changes and modernization efforts initiated in the Ottoman Empire during the mid-19th century, aimed at restructuring the empire’s administration and society to reverse its decline. These reforms sought to address internal issues, such as corruption and inefficiency, and aimed to incorporate Western-style legal, educational, and military practices. By promoting equality among citizens and attempting to modernize the state, the Tanzimat Reforms directly influenced the socio-political landscape of the empire amidst rising pressures from European powers and nationalist movements.
Three Emperors' League: The Three Emperors' League was a diplomatic alliance formed in 1873 between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia aimed at stabilizing Europe and managing the complex political landscape arising from the decline of the Ottoman Empire. This agreement sought to prevent conflicts over territorial disputes, especially in Eastern Europe, while promoting conservative values among the monarchies involved.
Treaty of Paris: The Treaty of Paris refers to a series of agreements that ended various conflicts involving France, most notably the treaties in 1763 and 1783, and the one in 1815 that concluded the Napoleonic Wars. These treaties played a significant role in shaping European boundaries, political power dynamics, and colonial holdings, particularly after the fall of Napoleon and during the restructuring of Europe in the 19th century.
Triple Alliance: The Triple Alliance was a military alliance formed in 1882 between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, aimed at counterbalancing the power of France and Russia in Europe. This alliance played a crucial role in shaping European diplomatic relations leading up to World War I, as it contributed to a polarized geopolitical environment marked by competing alliances.