🥸Ethics Unit 8 – Applied Ethics – Bioethics

Key Concepts in Bioethics

• Autonomy refers to the right of individuals to make their own informed decisions about their healthcare and medical treatment
• Beneficence involves the obligation of healthcare professionals to act in the best interest of their patients and promote their well-being
• Non-maleficence is the principle of avoiding harm or injury to patients, often expressed as "first, do no harm"
• Justice in bioethics concerns the fair and equitable distribution of healthcare resources, benefits, and burdens across society
  • Includes issues such as access to healthcare, allocation of scarce resources (organ transplants), and addressing health disparities
• Informed consent is the process by which patients receive relevant information about their condition, treatment options, and potential risks and benefits to make autonomous decisions
• Confidentiality involves protecting patients' private medical information and maintaining trust in the doctor-patient relationship
• Paternalism occurs when healthcare professionals make decisions on behalf of patients without their input or consent, often justified by the belief that they know what is best for the patient
• Dignity in bioethics refers to respecting the inherent worth and value of every human being, regardless of their health status or circumstances

Historical Context of Bioethics

• Bioethics emerged as a distinct field in the 1960s and 1970s, largely in response to advances in medical technology and research that raised new ethical questions
• The Nuremberg Code (1947) established ethical guidelines for human subjects research in the wake of Nazi medical experiments during World War II
  • Emphasized voluntary informed consent, avoiding unnecessary suffering, and the right of subjects to withdraw from research
• The Belmont Report (1979) identified three core ethical principles for biomedical research: respect for persons, beneficence, and justice
• The Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932-1972) involved the unethical withholding of treatment from African American men with syphilis, highlighting issues of racism, exploitation, and lack of informed consent in medical research
• High-profile legal cases, such as Karen Ann Quinlan (1975) and Nancy Cruzan (1990), sparked public debates about the right to refuse life-sustaining treatment and end-of-life decision-making
• The development of new reproductive technologies, such as in vitro fertilization (IVF) and prenatal genetic testing, raised questions about the moral status of embryos and the ethics of genetic selection
• The HIV/AIDS epidemic in the 1980s and 1990s brought attention to issues of stigma, discrimination, and access to healthcare for marginalized populations
• Advances in genetics and genomics, including the Human Genome Project (completed in 2003), have generated discussions about genetic privacy, discrimination, and the ethical implications of genetic engineering

Ethical Frameworks and Principles

• Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory that holds that the morally right action is the one that produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people
  • In bioethics, this may involve weighing the potential benefits and harms of a particular treatment or policy for individual patients and society as a whole
• Deontology is a duty-based ethical framework that emphasizes adherence to moral rules and obligations, such as the duty to respect patient autonomy or the duty of healthcare professionals to "do no harm"
• Virtue ethics focuses on the moral character of individuals and the cultivation of virtues such as compassion, integrity, and practical wisdom in medical practice
• Principlism is an approach to bioethics that seeks to balance and apply four core principles: respect for autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice
  • Developed by Tom Beauchamp and James Childress in their influential book "Principles of Biomedical Ethics" (1979)
• Casuistry is a case-based approach to ethical reasoning that draws on past precedents and analogies to guide decision-making in novel or complex situations
• Narrative ethics emphasizes the importance of understanding patients' unique stories, values, and experiences in ethical decision-making, rather than relying solely on abstract principles
• Feminist bioethics critiques traditional bioethical frameworks for neglecting the perspectives and experiences of women and marginalized groups, and advocates for a more contextual and relational approach to ethics
• Global bioethics recognizes the need to consider cultural diversity, social determinants of health, and issues of global justice in an increasingly interconnected world

Major Bioethical Issues

• End-of-life decision-making involves ethical questions about withholding or withdrawing life-sustaining treatment, advance directives, physician-assisted suicide, and euthanasia
  • Raises issues of patient autonomy, quality of life, and the role of healthcare professionals in end-of-life care
• Reproductive ethics encompasses issues such as abortion, maternal-fetal conflicts, assisted reproductive technologies (IVF, surrogacy), and prenatal genetic testing
• Allocation of scarce medical resources, such as organ transplants or intensive care beds, requires consideration of principles of justice, fairness, and medical need
• Research ethics involves ensuring the protection of human subjects, obtaining informed consent, minimizing risks, and promoting scientific integrity and social value
• Genetic ethics addresses issues of genetic privacy, confidentiality, discrimination, and the ethical implications of genetic testing, screening, and engineering
  • Includes debates about the use of gene editing technologies like CRISPR-Cas9 and the creation of "designer babies"
• Neuroethics explores the ethical implications of advances in neuroscience, such as brain imaging, cognitive enhancement, and the use of neurotechnology for medical or non-medical purposes
• Public health ethics considers the balance between individual liberty and the common good in the context of population-level health interventions, such as vaccine mandates or quarantine measures
• Environmental bioethics examines the ethical dimensions of the relationship between human health and the natural environment, including issues of sustainability, climate change, and environmental justice

Case Studies in Bioethics

• The case of Dax Cowart, a severely burned patient who repeatedly requested to discontinue treatment, illustrates the tension between respecting patient autonomy and the duty of healthcare professionals to promote patient welfare
• The Baby Doe case (1982) involved a newborn with Down syndrome and a correctable esophageal atresia whose parents refused surgery, raising questions about the limits of parental decision-making and the role of quality of life judgments
• The Terri Schiavo case (1990-2005) was a prolonged legal battle over the removal of a feeding tube from a woman in a persistent vegetative state, highlighting conflicts between family members and the challenges of surrogate decision-making
• The case of Jesse Gelsinger, an 18-year-old who died in a gene therapy clinical trial in 1999, brought attention to the risks of experimental treatments and the adequacy of informed consent processes
• The Ashley Treatment (2004) involved a young girl with severe developmental disabilities who underwent growth attenuation and surgical procedures to facilitate her care, raising questions about the ethics of medical interventions for non-medical purposes
• The Havasupai Tribe case (2004) involved the unauthorized use of DNA samples from tribal members for genetic research, illustrating issues of cultural sensitivity, informed consent, and the exploitation of indigenous communities in biomedical research
• The case of Jahi McMath, a 13-year-old declared brain-dead after a tonsillectomy in 2013, sparked debates about the diagnosis of brain death, accommodating religious beliefs, and the role of the courts in medical decision-making
• The 2018 case of He Jiankui, a Chinese scientist who claimed to have created the world's first gene-edited babies using CRISPR technology, highlighted the need for international governance of emerging biotechnologies and the ethical implications of heritable genetic modifications

Stakeholders and Perspectives

• Patients are the primary stakeholders in bioethical decision-making, as they are directly affected by the outcomes of medical interventions and have the right to make informed decisions about their care
• Family members and loved ones often play a significant role in healthcare decision-making, particularly when patients are incapacitated or unable to communicate their wishes
  • May have different values, beliefs, or perspectives that can lead to conflicts or disagreements about the best course of action
• Healthcare professionals, including physicians, nurses, and other clinicians, have professional and ethical obligations to promote patient well-being, respect autonomy, and provide high-quality care
• Healthcare institutions, such as hospitals and clinics, have organizational policies, values, and priorities that can influence bioethical decision-making and shape the delivery of care
• Policymakers and regulators at the local, national, and international levels play a role in establishing laws, guidelines, and oversight mechanisms for bioethical issues
  • Examples include the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the World Health Organization (WHO), and national bioethics committees
• Religious and cultural communities may have specific beliefs, practices, or traditions that inform their perspectives on bioethical issues, such as end-of-life care or reproductive technologies
• Patient advocacy groups and civil society organizations can provide a voice for patient and community interests, raise awareness about bioethical issues, and advocate for policy changes
• Researchers and scientists have a responsibility to conduct ethical research, protect human subjects, and consider the broader societal implications of their work

Ethical Decision-Making in Healthcare

• Identify the ethical issue or dilemma, clarifying the specific moral question or conflict that needs to be addressed
• Gather relevant facts and information about the case, including medical details, patient preferences, and contextual factors
• Identify the stakeholders involved and consider their perspectives, values, and interests
• Identify the ethical principles and values at stake, such as respect for autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice
• Consider the potential consequences and outcomes of different courses of action, weighing the benefits and harms for all stakeholders
• Identify and evaluate alternative options or solutions that may help resolve the ethical dilemma or mitigate negative consequences
• Make a reasoned and justifiable decision based on a careful analysis of the ethical principles, stakeholder perspectives, and potential outcomes
• Implement the decision and monitor its effects, being prepared to revisit or modify the decision if new information or circumstances arise
• Document the decision-making process and rationale, ensuring transparency and accountability
• Engage in ongoing ethical reflection and learning, recognizing that bioethical decision-making is a continuous process that requires adaptability and responsiveness to changing contexts and challenges

Future Challenges and Emerging Topics

• Precision medicine and personalized genomics raise questions about data privacy, informed consent, and the ethical implications of using genetic information for diagnostic, predictive, or therapeutic purposes
• The development of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning in healthcare presents challenges related to algorithmic bias, transparency, accountability, and the potential for automated decision-making to override human judgment
• The increasing use of telemedicine and digital health technologies, accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, requires attention to issues of access, equity, privacy, and the quality of remote care
• The globalization of biomedical research and healthcare delivery necessitates consideration of cultural diversity, social determinants of health, and the equitable distribution of benefits and burdens across populations
• Climate change and environmental degradation pose significant threats to human health and well-being, calling for a bioethical framework that incorporates principles of sustainability, intergenerational justice, and planetary health
• The emergence of new infectious diseases, such as COVID-19, highlights the need for ethical preparedness and response plans that balance individual rights with public health imperatives
• Advances in regenerative medicine, such as stem cell research and tissue engineering, raise questions about the moral status of embryos, the use of human-animal chimeras, and the equitable access to innovative therapies
• The increasing prevalence of chronic diseases and population aging presents challenges for the allocation of healthcare resources, the provision of long-term care, and the promotion of healthy aging and end-of-life care