4.2 Key Virtues and Character Traits

Core Virtues in Ethics

Virtue ethics focuses on developing good character traits rather than following strict rules. Instead of asking "What should I do?" it asks "What kind of person should I be?" Virtues like courage, justice, and wisdom aren't just abstract concepts. They're habits you can cultivate through practice and reflection, and they form a framework for both moral decision-making and personal growth.

Cardinal Virtues

The four cardinal virtues were first identified by Plato and later adopted by Aristotle, the Stoics, and medieval Christian thinkers. They are:

• Courage: Acting rightly in the face of danger, fear, or adversity. Courage sits between the extremes of cowardice (too little) and recklessness (too much). A courageous person feels fear but doesn't let it prevent them from doing what's right.
• Temperance: Self-restraint and moderation in desires and actions. This means controlling your appetites and emotions rather than being controlled by them. Think of it as the ability to say "enough" when excess would cause harm.
• Justice: A character trait that disposes you to respect the rights of others, give them what they're due, and uphold fairness and the common good. In virtue ethics, justice isn't just a legal concept; it's a personal quality.
• Prudence (practical wisdom): The ability to discern the right course of action in a given situation. Prudence involves good judgment, foresight, and the capacity to weigh consequences. Many virtue ethicists consider this the most important virtue because it guides how all the other virtues are applied.

Other Key Virtues

Different philosophical and religious traditions have expanded the list well beyond these four:

• Aristotle distinguished between moral virtues (like courage and generosity) and intellectual virtues (like wisdom and understanding). For Aristotle, a fully virtuous person needs both.
• Confucian virtue ethics centers on benevolence (ren), righteousness (yi), propriety (li), wisdom (zhi), and trustworthiness (xin). Benevolence, or care for others, is often treated as the highest Confucian virtue.
• Christian virtue ethics, especially in the work of Thomas Aquinas, adds the three theological virtues: faith, hope, and charity (love). Aquinas saw these as gifts from God that complete the cardinal virtues.
• Contemporary virtue ethicists like Alasdair MacIntyre and Rosalind Hursthouse have worked to revive and update the tradition, sometimes redefining traditional virtues or adding new ones like compassion, humility, and integrity.

Defining and Prioritizing Virtues

Aristotle's Doctrine of the Mean

Aristotle argued that each virtue is a mean (a balanced midpoint) between two vices: one of excess and one of deficiency. This is called the doctrine of the mean.

Some examples:

Prioritizing and Contextualizing Virtues

Not all virtue ethicists rank the virtues the same way. Which virtues matter most depends on philosophical commitments and cultural context:

• Aristotle placed wisdom and prudence at the top, since they guide the exercise of every other virtue.
• Confucian thinkers prioritized benevolence (ren) and filial piety as the foundation of moral character.
• Christian virtue ethicists typically ranked the theological virtues (faith, hope, charity) above the cardinal virtues, with charity as the greatest.

The exact definition and priority of virtues also shifts across time periods and societies. MacIntyre has argued that virtues are deeply tied to the cultural practices and narratives of a community. Feminist philosophers have critiqued traditional virtue lists for overlooking virtues like care, empathy, and nurturance, which were historically associated with women and therefore undervalued.

Virtues can also take on different meanings depending on your social roles. What courage looks like for a parent protecting a child differs from what it looks like for a whistleblower at a corporation.

Virtues, Character, and Habits

Virtues as Stable Character Traits

A virtue isn't a one-time action. It's a deeply ingrained character trait that shapes how you think, feel, and act across many situations. Honesty, for instance, isn't just telling the truth once. It's a stable, reliable disposition to be truthful even when it's inconvenient. Compassion means a consistent pattern of empathy and willingness to help, not just occasional kindness.

Virtue ethicists hold that virtuous character traits are intrinsically valuable, not just useful for producing good outcomes. Possessing a virtuous character is considered an essential component of eudaimonia (human flourishing). Virtues are admirable and praiseworthy in themselves, even when they don't always lead to the best consequences in a particular case.

Developing Virtues Through Habit and Practice

You aren't born virtuous. Virtues are developed and strengthened through habituation and repeated practice:

1. Act in accordance with the virtue. Consistently choosing courageous actions, for example, gradually builds the trait of courage into your character.
2. Learn from moral exemplars. Role models and mentors show you what virtuous behavior looks like in practice. Aristotle thought this was essential, especially early in life.
3. Learn to take pleasure in virtuous action. For Aristotle, a truly virtuous person doesn't just do the right thing reluctantly. Over time, they come to enjoy acting well.

Moral education and character development are central to virtue ethics. Confucian ethics, for example, stresses the role of rituals, traditions, and relationships in shaping character over a lifetime.

Virtues are also interconnected. Practicing one virtue often requires and supports others. Acting with honesty often demands courage when you're under pressure to lie. Compassion and generosity are closely linked to justice and a genuine concern for others' wellbeing. This interconnection is sometimes called the unity of the virtues.

Cultivating Virtuous Character

Practical Challenges and Conflicts

Maintaining virtuous character requires ongoing effort and honest self-reflection. Virtues aren't static; they must be continuously reinforced through good habits and choices. That means regularly assessing your own strengths and weaknesses.

One of the trickiest aspects of virtue ethics is that virtues can conflict with each other in real-life dilemmas:

• Honesty vs. kindness: Should you tell a friend a painful truth that could cause them real distress?
• Loyalty vs. integrity: What do you do when a close friend or colleague acts unethically?

Resolving these conflicts is where practical wisdom (prudence) becomes essential. There's no simple formula. You have to weigh competing values and judge what the situation demands.

Contextual Influences and Obstacles

Social and cultural context shapes how virtues are cultivated and expressed. Cultural norms may make certain virtues harder to practice. Dissent and nonconformity, for example, are more difficult in societies that strongly value obedience. Systemic injustices and inequalities can also limit opportunities for character development and moral growth.

Virtuous character can be eroded by negative influences. Peer pressure, self-interest, and difficult circumstances can lead people to act against their better judgment. Sustaining virtue takes moral resilience, self-discipline, and often a supportive community.

A common criticism of virtue ethics is that it provides less concrete action guidance than rule-based (deontological) or consequence-based (utilitarian) theories. If someone asks "What should I do right now?" virtue ethics doesn't hand you a clear rule. Virtue ethicists respond that virtues, combined with practical wisdom, are better equipped to handle the messiness and complexity of real moral life. The approach may be more realistic precisely because it acknowledges that ethical decision-making is always context-dependent.