2.2 The Dark Ages and the emergence of the polis
4 min read•august 6, 2024
The Dark Ages marked a period of decline in ancient Greece, with the collapse of Mycenaean civilization leading to cultural setbacks and population decrease. This era saw the loss of writing systems, depopulation of cities, and reduced trade, setting the stage for significant societal changes.
As Greece emerged from the Dark Ages, the () became the dominant political unit. This shift brought about new social structures, the development of public spaces, and the rise of citizen-soldiers. The polis system would shape Greek culture and politics for centuries to come.
Decline and Transition
Collapse of Mycenaean Civilization
Top images from around the web for Collapse of Mycenaean Civilization
XIII век до н. э. — Википедия View original
Is this image relevant?
History of Greece - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Dorian invasion - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
XIII век до н. э. — Википедия View original
Is this image relevant?
History of Greece - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
1 of 3
Top images from around the web for Collapse of Mycenaean Civilization
XIII век до н. э. — Википедия View original
Is this image relevant?
History of Greece - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Dorian invasion - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
XIII век до н. э. — Википедия View original
Is this image relevant?
History of Greece - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
1 of 3
- (1100-800 BCE) period of cultural decline and population decrease following the collapse of Mycenaean civilization
- Characterized by loss of writing systems, depopulation of cities, and decrease in trade
- Theories for collapse include invasion by Dorians or Sea Peoples, natural disasters (earthquakes, droughts), and internal strife
- Iron Age began around 1200 BCE with the introduction of iron metallurgy to Greece
- Iron weapons and tools gradually replaced bronze ones
- Iron was more abundant and cheaper to produce than bronze, making it more accessible
- Dorian invasion theory suggests Dorians (Greeks speaking a different dialect) migrated into Greece around 1100 BCE
- May have contributed to the collapse of Mycenaean civilization through warfare and displacement of populations
- Sparta was likely founded by Dorian settlers
Societal Changes
- Shift from palace-based economies to smaller, decentralized agricultural communities
- Loss of specialized industries (pottery, metalworking) that were controlled by palaces
- Subsistence farming became the primary economic activity
- Decrease in long-distance trade and contacts with other civilizations
- Reduction in luxury goods (gold, ivory) and raw materials (copper, tin)
- Limited cultural exchange and diffusion of ideas
- Emergence of a new social structure based on land ownership and military prowess
- Aristocratic families controlled the best land and dominated politics
- Emphasis on warfare and raiding as a means of acquiring wealth and status
Rise of the Polis
Development of City-States
- Polis (city-state) emerged as the basic political unit in ancient Greece around 800 BCE
- Consisted of a city center and its surrounding agricultural territory
- Each polis was an independent, self-governing community with its own laws, customs, and religious practices
- Emergence of city-states was a gradual process that occurred as populations grew and communities became more organized
- Synoecism (joining together) of villages and towns into larger urban centers
- Development of public spaces (agora, acropolis) and political institutions (councils, assemblies)
- movement began in the 8th century BCE as city-states established settlements overseas
- Motivated by population pressures, desire for new trade opportunities, and political conflicts
- Greek colonies were founded in Sicily, southern Italy, North Africa, and the Black Sea region
Cultural Developments
- Adoption of the Phoenician alphabet around 800 BCE revolutionized communication and record-keeping
- Greek alphabet added vowels and became the basis for many modern alphabets
- Facilitated the spread of literacy and the recording of literature (epic poetry, law codes)
- Hoplite warfare emerged as the dominant military system in the 7th century BCE
- Hoplites were heavily-armed infantry soldiers who fought in close formation (phalanx)
- Required discipline, training, and expensive equipment (bronze armor, shields, spears)
- Reflected the rise of a new class of citizen-soldiers who had a stake in the polis
Culture and Tradition
Oral Tradition and Literature
- played a central role in preserving and transmitting cultural knowledge and values
- Myths, legends, and historical events were passed down through generations by storytellers and poets
- Homeric epics (Iliad, Odyssey) were composed and performed orally before being written down in the 8th century BCE
- Development of new poetic forms and genres in the 7th and 6th centuries BCE
- Lyric poetry expressed personal emotions and experiences (Sappho, Pindar)
- Didactic poetry offered moral and practical advice (Hesiod's Works and Days)
- Fables used animal characters to convey wisdom and social commentary (Aesop)
Art and Religion
- Geometric art style emerged in the 9th century BCE and flourished until the 7th century BCE
- Characterized by abstract, geometric patterns and stylized human and animal figures
- Found on pottery, metalwork, and sculpture
- Reflected a shift away from the naturalistic style of Mycenaean art
- Hero cults developed around legendary figures from the past who were venerated as semi-divine beings
- Heroes were believed to have special powers and could be invoked for protection, guidance, and favor
- Cult practices included offerings, sacrifices, and festivals at hero shrines (heroa)
- Examples include cults of Theseus in Athens, Herakles in Thebes, and Achilles in Thessaly
Key Terms to Review (23)
Aeneas: Aeneas is a Trojan hero and the central character of Virgil's 'Aeneid', representing the ideal Roman values of duty and piety. He is significant not only for his role in the narrative of the Trojan War but also as the mythological founder of Rome, embodying themes of sacrifice, destiny, and divine influence throughout his journey.
Byzantine Empire: The Byzantine Empire was the eastern continuation of the Roman Empire, centered in Constantinople, that lasted from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. It was known for its rich culture, complex bureaucracy, and the preservation of Greco-Roman knowledge during a time when much of Europe was in decline.
Citizenship: Citizenship is the status of being a member of a political community, with associated rights and responsibilities. It connects individuals to their polis, creating a sense of belonging and participation in civic life, which became crucial during the transition from the Dark Ages to the emergence of city-states in ancient Greece.
City-state: A city-state is a self-governing city that also serves as the surrounding territory's political and economic center. It combines both the urban center and the agricultural land needed to sustain it, creating a distinct political unit that emphasizes local governance and identity. City-states were particularly significant in ancient Greece, where they fostered individualism and competition among different regions.
Colonization: Colonization refers to the process of establishing control over a territory and its people, often involving the migration of settlers and the exploitation of resources. During the period characterized by the Dark Ages and the emergence of the polis, this term connects to how Greek city-states began to expand their influence by founding new settlements, often due to overpopulation or lack of resources in their original homelands.
Democracy: Democracy is a system of government in which power is vested in the people, who exercise that power directly or through elected representatives. It emphasizes individual participation and equality in decision-making processes, often contrasting with monarchies and oligarchies. In ancient contexts, particularly during the emergence of city-states, democratic principles began to take shape as communities sought more inclusive forms of governance.
Epic simile: An epic simile is an extended comparison that typically relates a heroic or extraordinary event to everyday experiences or objects, often elaborating on details and using vivid imagery. This technique enhances the narrative by creating a more profound connection between the grand events of the epic and the audience's understanding.
Fate vs. Free Will: Fate vs. Free Will refers to the philosophical debate concerning whether our lives are predetermined by forces beyond our control or if we possess the autonomy to make our own choices. This tension is central to many epic narratives, influencing character decisions, plot developments, and moral dilemmas.
Feudalism: Feudalism is a social and economic system that dominated medieval Europe, characterized by the exchange of land for loyalty and military service. In this hierarchical structure, a king granted land to nobles in return for their support, while these nobles, or lords, would provide protection and land to vassals in exchange for their service. This system emerged after the collapse of centralized power during the Dark Ages, leading to localized governance and the formation of polises as communities began to establish more stable political structures.
Glory and honor: Glory and honor refer to the esteemed recognition and respect achieved through noble deeds, bravery, and virtuous conduct, often highlighted in epic poetry. In ancient societies, particularly during the Dark Ages, these concepts were central to personal identity and social standing, impacting relationships within communities and driving individuals to seek heroic accomplishments.
Gods and goddesses: Gods and goddesses in ancient Greek culture represent divine beings that influence various aspects of life, nature, and human affairs. They played a central role in religion, mythology, and the daily lives of people, serving as protectors, patrons, or embodiments of certain virtues and powers. The interactions between these deities and mortals often highlighted the values and beliefs of society during the period leading up to the emergence of city-states.
Greek Dark Ages: The Greek Dark Ages refers to a period in ancient Greek history that lasted from around 1100 to 800 BCE, characterized by a significant decline in population, loss of writing, and reduced artistic and cultural production. This era followed the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization and is often seen as a time of regression before the eventual rise of city-states and the re-emergence of Greek culture.
Heroic ideal: The heroic ideal refers to a set of qualities and values attributed to heroes in epic literature, such as bravery, honor, loyalty, and the pursuit of glory. These ideals not only define the characters within these stories but also serve as a reflection of the societal values and aspirations of the time. The heroic ideal emphasizes individual greatness and the importance of personal sacrifice for the greater good, influencing both literature and cultural identity throughout history.
Homer: Homer is the legendary ancient Greek poet traditionally said to be the author of two of the most important epic poems: the 'Iliad' and the 'Odyssey.' His works encapsulate key elements of epic poetry, showcasing themes of heroism, fate, and the human experience, which have influenced literature for centuries.
In medias res: In medias res is a Latin phrase meaning 'in the midst of things,' and it refers to a narrative technique where a story begins in the middle of the action rather than at the beginning. This approach engages the audience right away, allowing for immediate immersion into the plot and characters, which is a characteristic feature of epic poetry and influences its structure and storytelling style.
Mythological heroes: Mythological heroes are legendary figures often endowed with extraordinary abilities, engaging in grand adventures that embody cultural values and ideals. These heroes frequently represent the transition from the divine to the human, showcasing traits such as bravery, strength, and intelligence. Their stories serve to explain natural phenomena, cultural practices, and societal norms within their respective civilizations.
Oral Tradition: Oral tradition refers to the practice of passing down stories, poems, and cultural knowledge through spoken word rather than written text. This form of storytelling is crucial in shaping epic poetry, where it preserves and transmits history, cultural values, and collective memory across generations.
Polis: The term 'polis' refers to a city-state in ancient Greece, characterized by its urban center and the surrounding territory it controlled. Each polis functioned as an independent political entity, complete with its own government, laws, and social structure. The development of the polis marked a significant shift in social organization and governance, highlighting the importance of civic identity and participation in Greek culture.
The Aeneid: The Aeneid is an epic poem written by the Roman poet Virgil, which tells the story of Aeneas, a Trojan hero, as he journeys to find a new homeland after the fall of Troy. This work is significant as it reflects the values and ideals of ancient Rome while establishing a mythological foundation for the city's origins and destiny.
The Iliad: The Iliad is an ancient Greek epic poem attributed to Homer, focusing on the events of the Trojan War, particularly the wrath of Achilles. It captures themes of heroism, fate, and the impact of divine intervention in human affairs, making it a foundational text in the study of epic poetry and ancient Greek culture.
The Odyssey: The Odyssey is an ancient Greek epic poem attributed to Homer, recounting the adventures of Odysseus as he attempts to return home after the Trojan War. This narrative is essential in exploring themes of heroism, the struggle for identity, and the significance of family and homecoming in ancient Greek culture.
Trade routes: Trade routes are established paths or channels that facilitate the exchange of goods and services between different regions or civilizations. During the period known as the Dark Ages, these routes played a crucial role in connecting emerging city-states, or poleis, to other cultures, leading to the flow of not only commerce but also ideas, technology, and cultural practices that contributed to societal development.
Virgil: Virgil, also known as Publius Vergilius Maro, was a Roman poet best known for his epic poem, the 'Aeneid', which tells the story of Aeneas, a Trojan hero who becomes the ancestor of the Romans. His work is foundational in Latin literature and serves as a bridge between Greek and Roman epic traditions, highlighting the themes of fate, duty, and divine intervention.