🛠️Mechanical Engineering Design Unit 7 – Fatigue and Dynamic Loading in Engineering Design

Key Concepts

• Fatigue is the progressive, localized, and permanent structural damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic loading
• Fatigue failure occurs when a material is subjected to repeated loading and unloading, causing the initiation and propagation of cracks
• Fatigue life is the number of stress cycles a material can endure before failure occurs
  • Depends on factors such as stress amplitude, mean stress, and material properties
• Endurance limit is the stress level below which a material can theoretically endure an infinite number of cycles without failure (ferrous materials)
• Fatigue strength is the stress level at which a material can endure a specified number of cycles before failure (non-ferrous materials)
• Stress concentration factors (SCFs) quantify the increase in stress due to geometric discontinuities (notches, holes, fillets)
• Cumulative damage models (Miner's rule) predict fatigue life under variable amplitude loading by summing the damage caused by each stress level

Types of Fatigue

• High-cycle fatigue (HCF) involves low stress amplitudes and high numbers of cycles (typically greater than 10^4 cycles)
  • Occurs in components subjected to vibrations or rotating machinery
• Low-cycle fatigue (LCF) involves high stress amplitudes and low numbers of cycles (typically less than 10^4 cycles)
  • Occurs in components subjected to thermal cycling or large plastic deformations
• Thermal fatigue is caused by cyclic temperature changes, leading to thermal stresses and strains
• Corrosion fatigue occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic loading in a corrosive environment, accelerating crack initiation and propagation
• Fretting fatigue is caused by small-amplitude oscillatory motion between contacting surfaces, leading to wear and crack initiation
• Multiaxial fatigue involves complex stress states with multiple stress components (normal and shear stresses)
• Variable amplitude fatigue involves loading with varying stress amplitudes and mean stresses over time

Stress-Life Approach

• Stress-life (S-N) approach is based on the relationship between stress amplitude and the number of cycles to failure
• S-N curves plot stress amplitude versus the number of cycles to failure on a log-log scale
  • Generated through fatigue testing of smooth specimens at various stress levels
• Basquin's equation relates stress amplitude to the number of cycles to failure: $S_a = A(N_f)^b$
  • $S_a$ is the stress amplitude, $N_f$ is the number of cycles to failure, and $A$ and $b$ are material constants
• Goodman, Gerber, and Soderberg mean stress correction methods account for the effect of mean stress on fatigue life
  • Modify the stress amplitude based on the mean stress level
• Miner's rule predicts fatigue life under variable amplitude loading by summing the damage caused by each stress level: $\sum \frac{n_i}{N_i} = 1$
  • $n_i$ is the number of cycles at stress level $i$, and $N_i$ is the number of cycles to failure at stress level $i$
• Stress-life approach is suitable for high-cycle fatigue applications where the stresses are primarily elastic

Strain-Life Approach

• Strain-life approach is based on the relationship between strain amplitude and the number of cycles to failure
• Considers both elastic and plastic strain components, making it suitable for low-cycle fatigue applications
• Coffin-Manson equation relates plastic strain amplitude to the number of cycles to failure: $\frac{\Delta\varepsilon_p}{2} = \varepsilon_f'(2N_f)^c$
  • $\frac{\Delta\varepsilon_p}{2}$ is the plastic strain amplitude, $N_f$ is the number of cycles to failure, and $\varepsilon_f'$ and $c$ are material constants
• Basquin's equation relates elastic strain amplitude to the number of cycles to failure: $\frac{\Delta\varepsilon_e}{2} = \frac{\sigma_f'}{E}(2N_f)^b$
  • $\frac{\Delta\varepsilon_e}{2}$ is the elastic strain amplitude, $\sigma_f'$ is the fatigue strength coefficient, $E$ is the elastic modulus, and $b$ is a material constant
• Total strain amplitude is the sum of the elastic and plastic strain amplitudes: $\frac{\Delta\varepsilon}{2} = \frac{\Delta\varepsilon_e}{2} + \frac{\Delta\varepsilon_p}{2}$
• Strain-life curves plot total strain amplitude versus the number of reversals (2$N_f$) on a log-log scale
• Neuber's rule and the equivalent strain energy density (ESED) method are used to estimate local stresses and strains at notches

Fracture Mechanics

• Fracture mechanics deals with the study of crack initiation, propagation, and final fracture in materials
• Linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) assumes small-scale yielding and is applicable to brittle materials
  • Stress intensity factor ($K$) characterizes the stress field near a crack tip
  • Fracture occurs when $K$ reaches the critical value, known as the fracture toughness ($K_{IC}$)
• Elastic-plastic fracture mechanics (EPFM) considers significant plastic deformation and is applicable to ductile materials
  • J-integral and crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) are used to characterize the crack tip conditions
• Paris' law relates the crack growth rate to the stress intensity factor range: $\frac{da}{dN} = C(\Delta K)^m$
  • $\frac{da}{dN}$ is the crack growth rate, $\Delta K$ is the stress intensity factor range, and $C$ and $m$ are material constants
• Fatigue crack growth can be divided into three stages: crack initiation, stable crack growth, and rapid crack growth leading to final fracture
• Crack closure effects, such as plasticity-induced and oxide-induced closure, can reduce the effective stress intensity factor range and slow crack growth

Dynamic Loading Effects

• Dynamic loading involves time-varying forces or displacements, leading to stress waves and inertial effects
• Impact loading occurs when a force is applied rapidly, causing stress waves to propagate through the material
  • Can lead to localized plastic deformation, crack initiation, and brittle fracture
• Strain rate effects influence the mechanical properties of materials under dynamic loading
  • Yield strength and ultimate tensile strength typically increase with increasing strain rate
  • Ductility and fracture toughness may decrease with increasing strain rate
• Inertial effects become significant when the loading frequency approaches the natural frequencies of the structure
  • Can lead to resonance, amplifying the stresses and strains in the material
• Damping mechanisms, such as material damping and structural damping, can dissipate energy and reduce the dynamic response
• Dynamic fracture toughness characterizes a material's resistance to crack propagation under dynamic loading conditions

Design Considerations

• Fatigue design involves selecting materials, geometries, and manufacturing processes to ensure adequate fatigue life
• Material selection considers fatigue strength, endurance limit, fracture toughness, and compatibility with the operating environment
  • Heat treatment, surface treatments, and coatings can improve fatigue performance
• Geometric design aims to minimize stress concentrations and ensure smooth stress flow
  • Avoid sharp corners, notches, and abrupt changes in cross-section
  • Use generous fillets and radii to reduce stress concentrations
• Surface finish and residual stresses affect fatigue performance
  • Smooth surface finishes reduce stress concentrations and improve fatigue life
  • Compressive residual stresses (shot peening, laser peening) can delay crack initiation and propagation
• Redundancy and fail-safe design principles can prevent catastrophic failure in the event of fatigue damage
  • Multiple load paths, crack arresters, and damage-tolerant design approaches
• Inspection and maintenance strategies detect and monitor fatigue damage, allowing for timely repairs or replacements

Real-World Applications

• Aerospace industry: aircraft wings, fuselages, and landing gear subjected to cyclic loading during flight
  • Fatigue design is critical for ensuring the safety and reliability of aircraft components
• Automotive industry: suspension components, engine parts, and chassis subjected to variable amplitude loading
  • Fatigue design considers the expected service life and loading conditions of the vehicle
• Power generation: steam and gas turbine blades, pressure vessels, and piping systems subjected to thermal and mechanical cycling
  • Fatigue design ensures the long-term reliability and efficiency of power generation equipment
• Bridges and infrastructure: structural components subjected to traffic loading, wind-induced vibrations, and thermal cycling
  • Fatigue design considers the expected service life, traffic patterns, and environmental conditions
• Medical implants: hip and knee replacements, dental implants, and cardiovascular stents subjected to cyclic loading in the body
  • Fatigue design ensures the long-term performance and biocompatibility of medical implants
• Consumer products: bicycles, hand tools, and household appliances subjected to repeated use and loading
  • Fatigue design balances performance, durability, and cost considerations for consumer products