9.6 Common verbs

Common verb types

Latin verbs carry the weight of every sentence. They tell you not just what happens, but when, how, and to whom. Getting comfortable with common verbs and their patterns is the single most important step toward reading and writing Latin with confidence.

Regular vs irregular verbs

Regular verbs follow predictable conjugation patterns based on which conjugation group they belong to. They make up the majority of Latin verbs, so once you learn the pattern for a group, you can conjugate hundreds of verbs. Examples: amāre (to love), vidēre (to see), legere (to read).

Irregular verbs break from standard conjugation rules and need to be memorized individually. The tricky part is that many of the most frequently used verbs in Latin are irregular: esse (to be), īre (to go), ferre (to carry). You'll encounter these constantly, so learning their forms early pays off.

Transitive vs intransitive verbs

• Transitive verbs require a direct object to complete their meaning. They describe actions done to something or someone: amāre (to love) needs an object (you love someone).
• Intransitive verbs express a complete action on their own, with no direct object needed: dormīre (to sleep) makes sense by itself.

Knowing whether a verb is transitive or intransitive helps you figure out what case a noun should be in. If the verb is transitive, expect an accusative direct object.

Deponent verbs

Deponent verbs look passive but mean something active. They use passive endings in every tense and mood, yet you translate them as if they were active. Their first principal part ends in -or instead of -ō.

For example, hortor looks like a passive form, but it means "I encourage" (active). Other common deponents include sequor (I follow) and loquor (I speak). The key rule: if you see passive endings but the verb is deponent, translate it actively.

Verb conjugations

Latin verbs are grouped into four conjugation classes based on their infinitive endings. Recognizing which conjugation a verb belongs to tells you how it changes across tenses, moods, and persons.

First conjugation verbs

• Infinitive ends in -āre (with a long ā)
• Present stem ends in -ā
• Example: amāre (to love), ambulāre (to walk)
• These follow very regular patterns, making them the easiest conjugation to learn. Most introductory Latin courses start here.

Second conjugation verbs

• Infinitive ends in -ēre (with a long ē)
• Present stem ends in -ē
• Example: vidēre (to see), habēre (to have)
• Also quite regular. Many second conjugation verbs describe states or conditions rather than dynamic actions.

Third conjugation verbs

• Infinitive ends in -ere (with a short e)
• Present stem typically ends in a consonant
• Example: legere (to read), scrībere (to write)
• This is the largest and most varied group. It includes both regular and irregular verbs, so pay extra attention to individual forms. Don't confuse the short -ere ending with the long -ēre of the second conjugation.

Fourth conjugation verbs

• Infinitive ends in -īre (with a long ī)
• Present stem ends in -ī
• Example: audīre (to hear), sentīre (to feel)
• Less common than the other groups but still important. Many fourth conjugation verbs relate to senses and mental activities.

Tenses in Latin

Latin has six tenses, split into two systems: the present system (present, imperfect, future) and the perfect system (perfect, pluperfect, future perfect). Each system uses a different stem.

Present tense

• Expresses actions happening now or general truths
• Formed using the present stem + personal endings
• Example: amō (I love), legit (he/she reads)
• Can also describe habitual actions ("she walks every day") or, in some contexts, the immediate future

Imperfect tense

• Describes ongoing or repeated actions in the past
• Formed by inserting -bā- between the present stem and personal endings
• Example: amābam (I was loving / I used to love)
• Translate it as "was ___-ing" or "used to ___." This tense sets the scene and provides background in narratives, while the perfect tense moves the story forward.

Future tense

• Indicates actions that will happen
• Formation depends on conjugation:
  • 1st and 2nd conjugation: add -bō, -bis, -bit, etc.
  • 3rd and 4th conjugation: add -am, -ēs, -et, etc.
• Example: amābō (I will love), legam (I will read)
• Watch out for the different formation rules across conjugations. This is a common source of errors.

Perfect tense

• Expresses completed actions in the past
• Formed using the perfect stem (from the 3rd principal part) + perfect endings: -ī, -istī, -it, -imus, -istis, -ērunt
• Example: amāvī (I loved / I have loved)
• Can function as a simple past ("I loved") or as a present perfect ("I have loved"), depending on context

Pluperfect tense

• Describes actions completed before another past action
• Formed by adding -erā- to the perfect stem, then personal endings
• Example: amāveram (I had loved)
• Translate as "had ___-ed." This tense establishes what happened first in a sequence of past events.

Future perfect tense

• Indicates actions that will be completed before a specific future point
• Formed by adding -erō (and related endings) to the perfect stem
• Example: amāverō (I will have loved)
• Less common than other tenses, but it shows up in conditional and temporal clauses. Translate as "will have ___-ed."

Moods

Mood tells you the speaker's attitude toward the action. Is it a fact? A wish? A command?

Indicative mood

The indicative states facts or asks direct questions. It's the default mood and appears in all six tenses. When you see a straightforward statement like amō (I love) or vēnit (he came), that's the indicative.

Subjunctive mood

The subjunctive expresses wishes, possibilities, doubts, or hypothetical situations. It appears frequently in subordinate clauses (purpose clauses, result clauses, indirect questions, etc.).

• Has four tenses: present, imperfect, perfect, pluperfect
• Often translated with "may," "might," or "would": amem (I may love)
• This mood takes practice. You'll encounter it constantly in more complex Latin reading.

Imperative mood

The imperative gives commands or makes requests.

• Mostly exists in the 2nd person (singular and plural)
• Singular: use the bare present stem: amā (love!), audī (listen!)
• Plural: add -te: amāte (love!), audīte (listen!)
• A future imperative also exists but is rare outside legal and religious texts.

Voice

Active voice

The subject performs the action: amō (I love). This is the more common voice and follows standard conjugation patterns.

Passive voice

The subject receives the action: amor (I am loved). In the present system, passive voice uses distinct personal endings (-r, -ris, -tur, -mur, -minī, -ntur). In the perfect system, passive forms are compound, combining the perfect passive participle with forms of esse: amātus sum (I was loved / I have been loved).

Principal parts

Every Latin verb has four principal parts. Together, they give you everything you need to conjugate the verb in any tense, mood, or voice. You must memorize them for each verb.

Using amō as an example:

1. First principal part (amō): present indicative active, 1st person singular. This is the dictionary form. It gives you the present stem and tells you the conjugation group.
2. Second principal part (amāre): present active infinitive. Confirms the conjugation group. The vowel length before -re is what distinguishes conjugations.
3. Third principal part (amāvī): perfect indicative active, 1st person singular. Gives you the perfect stem (amāv-), used for all perfect system active tenses. This part often shows irregularities.
4. Fourth principal part (amātum): the supine (or sometimes listed as the perfect passive participle amātus). Gives you the supine stem (amāt-), used for perfect passive tenses and participles.

Common verb stems

Present stem

• Found by removing the personal ending (or the -re of the infinitive)
• Used for: present, imperfect, and future tenses (active and passive)
• Also the base for present participles
• Example: am- from amāre

Perfect stem

• Found by removing -ī from the third principal part
• Used for: perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect tenses (active voice only)
• Often looks quite different from the present stem, especially in 3rd conjugation verbs
• Example: amāv- from amāvī; but cēp- from cēpī (capere, to take)

Supine stem

• Found by removing -um from the fourth principal part
• Used for: perfect passive tenses (combined with esse) and future active participles
• Example: amāt- from amātum

Frequently used verbs

These verbs appear everywhere in Latin. Most are irregular, so their forms need to be memorized.

Esse (to be)

Principal parts: sum, esse, fuī, futūrus

The most important verb in Latin. It's highly irregular, with unique forms in nearly every tense. Esse serves as the copula ("The boy is good") and is required for forming compound tenses in the passive voice (amātus est, "he was loved").

Key forms to memorize: sum, es, est, sumus, estis, sunt (present); eram (imperfect); erō (future); fuī (perfect).

Habēre (to have)

Principal parts: habeō, habēre, habuī, habitum

A second conjugation verb expressing possession. It also appears in many idiomatic phrases and forms the base for compound verbs like prohibēre (to prevent). Mostly regular, though you should watch for the perfect stem habu-.

Facere (to make/do)

Principal parts: faciō, facere, fēcī, factum

A third conjugation verb used in a huge range of contexts. Note the irregular passive: instead of standard passive forms, Latin uses the separate verb fierī (to be made, to become). Facere also combines with many prefixes to create new verbs: cōnficere (to complete), efficere (to bring about).

Īre (to go)

Principal parts: eō, īre, iī (or īvī), itum

Highly irregular. You'll see it in both literal movement and figurative senses (progress, change). It forms the base for many compound verbs: exīre (to go out), redīre (to return), trānsīre (to cross).

Dīcere (to say)

Principal parts: dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictum

A third conjugation verb essential for reported speech. Note the shortened imperative singular: dīc (not dīce). Like facere, it combines with prefixes: praedīcere (to predict), indicere (to declare).

Verb prefixes

Latin uses prefixes attached to verbs to create new words with modified meanings. Learning common prefixes dramatically expands your vocabulary because you can often figure out an unfamiliar compound verb by recognizing the prefix + base verb.

Common prefixes

• ad- (to, toward): adds direction or addition. Advenīre = to arrive (come toward)
• con- (with, together): implies togetherness or completion. Convenīre = to come together, to meet
• dē- (down, away from): indicates downward motion or removal. Dēdūcere = to lead down
• ex- (out of, from): suggests outward movement or completion. Exclāmāre = to shout out
• in- (in, into; or against): can mean movement inward or intensification. Inferre = to bring in, to carry against
• prae- (before): indicates prior action or position in front. Praedīcere = to predict (say before)

Meaning changes with prefixes

Prefixes can shift a verb's meaning in several ways:

• Change an intransitive verb to transitive: venīre (to come) → convenīre (to meet someone)
• Alter the meaning significantly: facere (to make) → inficere (to stain, to corrupt)
• Intensify the action: clāmāre (to shout) → exclāmāre (to cry out)
• Create an opposite meaning: probāre (to approve) → improbāre (to disapprove)

When you encounter an unfamiliar verb, try breaking it into prefix + root verb. That often gets you close to the meaning.

Verb aspects

Aspect describes how an action relates to time, distinct from when it happens.

Perfective aspect

Treats the action as a completed whole. The perfect system tenses (perfect, pluperfect, future perfect) carry perfective aspect. The focus is on the result or the fact that the action is done: amāvī can mean "I loved" (viewing the action as complete).

Imperfective aspect

Treats the action as ongoing, repeated, or in progress. The present system tenses (present, imperfect, future) carry imperfective aspect. The focus is on the process or duration: amābam means "I was loving" or "I kept loving."

This distinction matters for translation. In a narrative, perfective verbs advance the plot ("he arrived, he spoke, he left") while imperfective verbs paint the background ("the sun was shining, soldiers were marching").

Verb participles

Participles are verb forms that act as adjectives. They agree with nouns in gender, number, and case, but they also carry verbal meaning (tense and voice). Latin has three participles.

Present participle

• Formed from the present stem + -ns, -ntis (3rd declension)
• Expresses action happening at the same time as the main verb
• Example: amāns (loving), legēns (reading)
• Translates as "-ing": puella legēns = "the girl reading" or "the girl who is reading"

Perfect participle

• Formed from the supine stem + -us, -a, -um (1st/2nd declension)
• Expresses completed action, usually before the main verb
• Passive in meaning: amātus = "having been loved," captus = "having been captured"
• Combined with esse to form perfect passive tenses: amātus est = "he was loved"

Future participle

• Formed from the supine stem + -ūrus, -ūra, -ūrum
• Expresses action about to happen or intended
• Active in meaning: amātūrus = "about to love," "going to love"
• Used in the active periphrastic construction: amātūrus sum = "I am about to love"

Gerunds and gerundives

These forms let you use a verb's action as a noun or adjective. They're closely related but function differently.

Gerund formation

• Formed from the present stem + -ndī, -ndō, -ndum (2nd declension neuter singular only)
• Acts as a verbal noun in cases other than the nominative
• Example: amandī (of loving), legendō (by reading)
• The nominative role is filled by the infinitive instead: amāre est bonum (to love is good)

Gerundive formation

• Formed from the present stem + -ndus, -nda, -ndum (1st/2nd declension adjective)
• Acts as a passive verbal adjective expressing necessity or obligation
• Agrees with its noun in gender, number, and case
• Example: liber legendus = "a book to be read" or "a book that must be read"

Usage in sentences

• Gerunds express the abstract idea of a verbal action: ars amandī (the art of loving)
• Gerundives express obligation in the passive periphrastic: Carthāgō dēlenda est (Carthage must be destroyed). The person who must act goes in the dative case.
• Both forms can follow prepositions to express purpose or means: ad legendum (for the purpose of reading)
• Gerund-gerundive attraction: when a gerund would take a direct object, Latin often replaces it with a gerundive agreeing with that object. Instead of ad legendum librōs, you'll typically see ad librōs legendōs.