9.5 Animals

Common animal vocabulary

Animals played a central role in Roman life. From household pets to mythical beasts, animal vocabulary shows up constantly in Latin texts. Knowing these terms helps with translation exercises and gives you a window into Roman culture, literature, and religion.

Domestic animals

These are the animals Romans interacted with daily, and they appear frequently in Latin passages:

• Canis, canis (dog): A common household companion in Roman literature and daily life. Dogs served as guards, hunters, and pets.
• Felis, felis (cat): A later addition to Roman households, reflecting changing domestication patterns. Cats were valued mainly for pest control.
• Equus, equī (horse): Central to Roman military and transportation. You'll see this word constantly in texts about warfare and travel.
• Bōs, bovis (cow/ox): Essential to Roman agriculture. Oxen plowed fields, and cows provided milk and meat.

Wild animals

Wild animals appear in everything from epic poetry to arena descriptions:

• Leō, leōnis (lion): Shows up in descriptions of exotic lands and gladiatorial contests.
• Lupus, lupī (wolf): Culturally significant because of Rome's founding myth, where a she-wolf (lupa) nursed Romulus and Remus.
• Ursus, ursī (bear): Features in hunting narratives and symbolizes strength.
• Cervus, cervī (deer): Common in pastoral poetry and hunting scenes, often associated with the goddess Diana.

Animal body parts

These terms come up in descriptions of animals and also carry metaphorical weight:

• Cornū, cornūs (horn): Applies to various animals and has metaphorical uses (e.g., the "horns" of a dilemma).
• Cauda, caudae (tail): Describes tails across species.
• Rōstrum, rōstrī (beak): Describes bird anatomy but also extends to other pointed features. The Rostra (speaker's platform in the Forum) was named for the ship beaks mounted on it.
• Ungula, ungulae (hoof): Cloven hooves (ungulae bissulcae) held particular significance in Roman divination practices.

Grammatical gender of animals

Latin assigns grammatical gender to animal nouns, and that gender affects how adjectives and pronouns agree with them. Some animal nouns have a fixed gender regardless of the actual sex of the animal, while others have distinct masculine and feminine forms.

Masculine animal nouns

• Equus (horse) stays masculine even when referring to a mare. A separate word, equa, exists for a female horse.
• Lupus (wolf) is masculine, with a feminine counterpart lupa (she-wolf).
• Piscis (fish) takes masculine gender regardless of the fish's actual sex.
• Mūs (mouse) is masculine in most contexts, though exceptions can appear in poetry.

Feminine animal nouns

• Vulpēs (fox) is consistently feminine, even when describing a male fox.
• Apis (bee) is feminine, which makes sense given the prominence of female bees in hives.
• Formīca (ant) follows the typical first declension pattern and is feminine.
• Aquila (eagle) is feminine despite often representing masculine qualities. It was the standard of the Roman legions and frequently associated with Jupiter.

Neuter animal nouns

• Animal, animālis (animal) is a broad neuter term encompassing all creatures.
• Pecus, pecoris (livestock) is neuter when referring to a herd or flock collectively.
• Iūmentum, iūmentī (beast of burden) applies to work animals like oxen or donkeys.
• Īnsectum, īnsectī (insect) derives from the verb insecāre (to cut into), referring to the segmented bodies of insects.

Animals in Latin literature

Animals serve diverse literary functions across Latin genres. Studying how Roman authors used animal imagery reveals cultural values and sharpens your ability to recognize literary devices.

Fables and allegories

• Aesop's fables, translated into Latin, use animals to convey moral lessons. The fox typically represents cunning, while the lion symbolizes strength and nobility.
• Phaedrus adapted and expanded on Aesopic traditions in Latin verse fables during the 1st century CE.
• Apuleius' Metamorphoses (also called The Golden Ass) features a man transformed into a donkey, exploring themes of humanity and beastliness.

Epic poetry

• Virgil's Aeneid incorporates animals in similes and omens (augury). Horses play significant roles in battle scenes and as companions to heroes.
• Mythical creatures like Cerberus (the three-headed dog) appear in underworld descriptions.
• Animal sacrifices feature in religious rituals throughout epic narratives. Bulls and sheep were the most common sacrificial animals.

Natural history texts

• Pliny the Elder's Nātūrālis Historia provides extensive descriptions of known animals, though it blends factual observation with folklore.
• Varrō's Rērum Rūsticārum discusses domesticated animals in agricultural contexts.
• Columella's Dē Rē Rūsticā offers practical advice on animal husbandry.

These texts often include fantastical details when describing exotic animals, so don't take every claim at face value.

Animal-related idioms and expressions

Latin animal idioms show up in literature and rhetoric, and many have survived into modern languages. Recognizing them helps you translate more naturally.

Proverbs with animals

• "Lupus in fābulā" (the wolf in the story) = "speak of the devil" in English. Used when someone appears right as they're being discussed.
• "Equō nē crēdite" (don't trust the horse) = a warning against deception, referencing the Trojan Horse. From Virgil's Aeneid.
• "Canis timidus vehementius lātrat" (a frightened dog barks more fiercely) = similar to "barking dogs seldom bite."
• "Aquila nōn captat muscās" (an eagle doesn't catch flies) = focus on worthy pursuits, not trivial matters.

Animal metaphors

• Vulpēs (fox) represents cunning or slyness in character descriptions.
• Leō (lion) symbolizes courage, strength, or leadership in political contexts.
• Ovis (sheep) can denote gentleness or, negatively, mindless following.
• "Anguis in herbā" (snake in the grass) indicates hidden danger or a treacherous person. This metaphor appears in Virgil's Eclogues and has entered many modern languages.

Animal similes

• "Fortis ut leō" (brave as a lion) compares courage to the perceived bravery of lions.
• "Lentus ut testūdō" (slow as a tortoise) describes sluggishness or careful deliberation.
• "Garrulus sīcut pīca" (chattering like a magpie) characterizes excessive talkativeness. Magpies were noted for their vocal nature in Roman natural history.

Declension of animal nouns

Animal nouns follow the same declension patterns as other Latin nouns. Knowing which declension an animal belongs to is essential for getting your case endings right.

First declension animals

First declension animal nouns are typically feminine:

• Aquila, aquilae (eagle)
• Bēstia, bēstiae (beast)
• Vacca, vaccae (cow)
• Columba, columbae (dove): often appears in poetic or religious contexts. Genitive plural: columbārum; dative/ablative plural: columbīs.

Second declension animals

Second declension animals are mostly masculine (ending in -us) or neuter (ending in -um):

• Lupus, lupī (wolf): masculine, standard pattern
• Taurus, taurī (bull): masculine, regular
• Ursus, ursī (bear): masculine, regular
• Cervus, cervī (stag): masculine, regular
• Iūmentum, iūmentī (beast of burden): neuter second declension; plural: iūmenta

Third declension animals

Third declension animals are the trickiest because they include consonant stems, i-stems, and irregular forms:

• Leō, leōnis (lion): consonant stem
• Apis, apis (bee): i-stem pattern
• Serpēns, serpentis (snake): declines as a third declension present participle
• Bōs, bovis (ox/cow): irregular. Watch these forms carefully:
  • Nominative plural: bovēs
  • Genitive plural: boum
  • Dative/ablative plural: būbus or bōbus

Animals in Roman culture

Pets in ancient Rome

• Dogs (canēs) served as companions, guards, and hunting partners.
• Birds like parrots (psittacī) and songbirds were kept in wealthy households.
• Cats (fēlēs) gained popularity later in Roman history, primarily for pest control.
• Exotic pets such as monkeys (simiae) signified status among the elite. Inscriptions and artwork sometimes depict beloved pets with affectionate names.

Livestock and agriculture

• Cattle (bovēs) provided labor for plowing, plus meat and dairy.
• Sheep (ovēs) supplied wool for textiles and meat.
• Pigs (suēs) were raised for meat and played a role in certain religious practices.
• Chickens (gallī/gallīnae) provided eggs and meat, and were also used in augury. Varrō's Dē Rē Rūsticā details the care and management of these animals.

Animals in gladiatorial games

The arena spectacles called vēnātiōnēs (hunts) featured exotic animals imported at enormous expense:

• Lions (leōnēs) and tigers (tigrēs) were the most dramatic attractions.
• Bears (ursī) fought against gladiators or other animals.
• Elephants (elephantī) occasionally appeared in arena displays.
• Ostriches (strūthiōnēs) sometimes raced in the circus or were hunted for sport.

Describing animal actions

Latin has specific verbs for animal movements, sounds, and behaviors. Many of these verbs also get used metaphorically to describe humans.

Verbs for animal movements

• Volāre (to fly): birds and flying insects
• Rēpere (to crawl): snakes, insects, and other ground-dwelling creatures
• Natāre (to swim): fish and aquatic animals
• Salīre (to leap): agile animals like deer or rabbits. Compound forms like prōsilīre (to leap forth) add nuance.

Verbs for animal sounds

• Lātrāre (to bark): dogs
• Rugīre (to roar): lions and other big cats
• Hinnīre (to neigh): horses
• Strīdēre (to hiss or buzz): snakes, insects, and other creatures. Some of these verbs are onomatopoeic, like cucurrīre (to crow), which mimics the actual sound.

Verbs for animal behaviors

• Pāscere (to graze): cattle, sheep, and other herbivores
• Vēnārī (to hunt): predatory animals seeking prey (deponent verb)
• Nīdificāre (to nest): birds building nests and raising young
• Hībernāre (to hibernate): winter dormancy of certain animals

Some behavior verbs, like ululāre (to howl), apply to both animals and humans.

Animal adjectives

Adjectives describing animals make Latin descriptions vivid and are frequently extended metaphorically to human characteristics.

Colors and patterns

• Albus (white): animals with pure white coloring
• Fulvus (tawny): commonly applied to lions and other golden-brown animals
• Maculōsus (spotted): animals with distinctive markings
• Versicolor (multicolored): animals with varied or changing colors

Color adjectives often carry symbolic meanings in literary contexts (e.g., albus can suggest purity or divine favor).

Size and shape

• Magnus (large) and parvus (small): basic size distinctions
• Prōcērus (tall, slender): animals with elongated builds
• Crassus (thick, fat): well-fed or naturally rotund animals
• Gracilis (slender, slim): animals with a lithe build

Remember that comparative and superlative forms (e.g., maior, maximus) allow for more precise size comparisons.

Temperament and behavior

• Ferōx (fierce): wild or aggressive animals
• Mītis (mild, gentle): domesticated or naturally docile creatures
• Rapāx (greedy, predatory): animals known for hunting prowess
• Timidus (timid, fearful): prey animals or those easily startled

These adjectives frequently extend to human character descriptions in literature, so you'll encounter them well beyond animal contexts.

Mythological animals

Mythological creatures appear throughout Roman literature and religion. Many carry symbolic or allegorical meanings that Roman readers would have recognized immediately.

Creatures in Roman myths

• Mīnotaurus (Minotaur): combines human and bull features in Cretan mythology
• Chimaera: blends lion, goat, and serpent elements into a fearsome monster
• Pēgasus: the winged horse, featured in heroic tales and constellations
• Cerberus: the three-headed dog guarding the entrance to the underworld

These creatures typically represent challenges for heroes to overcome.

Animal transformations

Transformation into animals is a major theme in Latin literature, especially in Ovid's Metamorphōsēs:

• Lycaon is transformed into a wolf as divine punishment for impiety.
• Iō is changed into a cow because of divine jealousy (Jupiter and Juno).
• Arachnē becomes a spider as punishment for hubris in challenging Minerva.
• Actaeōn is turned into a stag after accidentally seeing Diana bathing, then killed by his own hunting dogs.

Divine animals

Certain animals were sacred to specific gods and served as their attributes:

• Aquila (eagle): Jupiter's sacred bird and messenger
• Pāvō (peacock): associated with Juno, representing her watchful nature (the "eyes" on peacock feathers linked to the myth of Argus)
• Columba (dove): connected to Venus as a symbol of love
• Lupus (wolf): significant in the cult of Mars and Rome's founding myth

These divine animals appear frequently in art and literature as ways to identify or reference specific gods.

Animals in Roman religion

Animals were deeply woven into Roman religious practice. Understanding their roles gives you essential context for reading Latin religious texts.

Sacred animals

• Bōs (ox/cow): held sacred status in various cults, including that of Mithras.
• Ānser (goose): sacred to Juno and credited with saving Rome from a Gallic attack in 390 BCE by raising the alarm on the Capitoline Hill.
• Pīcus (woodpecker): associated with Mars and featured in augury practices.
• Apis: In Egyptian religion adopted into some Roman practice, Apis was a sacred bull, not a bee (despite sharing a spelling with apis, bee).

Animal sacrifices

Roman sacrifices followed strict ritual procedures:

• Suovetaurilia: the sacrifice of a pig (sūs), sheep (ovis), and bull (taurus) in important purification rituals.
• Agna (female lamb): commonly sacrificed to female deities.
• Taurus (bull): a significant and costly sacrifice, often offered to Jupiter.
• Gallus (rooster): sacrificed to Aesculapius, god of healing.

The proper execution of animal sacrifices was considered crucial for maintaining pāx deōrum (peace with the gods). Errors in ritual could invalidate the entire ceremony.

Augury and omens

Romans used animal behavior to interpret divine will through several practices:

1. Auspicia: Observing bird (avis) flight patterns and behaviors for divine messages.
2. Pullārius: A priest who observed the eating habits of sacred chickens to determine favorable omens. If the chickens ate eagerly, the omen was good.
3. Extispicium: Examining animal entrails, especially the liver (iecur), for prophetic signs after a sacrifice.
4. Prōdigia: Unusual animal behaviors or appearances interpreted as divine warnings.

Many of these practices were codified in the disciplīna Etrusca, the Etruscan tradition of divination that Rome adopted.