4.3 Comparison of adjectives

Types of comparison

Latin adjectives come in three degrees of comparison, just like English (tall, taller, tallest). These degrees let you describe a quality on its own, compare it between two things, or single out the extreme.

Positive degree

The positive degree is the base form of the adjective with no comparison involved. This is the dictionary form you already know: longus, -a, -um (long), fortis, -e (brave). It simply describes a quality without measuring it against anything else. The positive form is also your starting point for building comparatives and superlatives.

Comparative degree

The comparative degree expresses a greater degree of a quality and is used when comparing two things. In English, this corresponds to "-er" or "more": longior (longer), fortior (braver / more brave).

Superlative degree

The superlative degree expresses the highest degree of a quality among three or more things. In English, this corresponds to "-est" or "most": longissimus (longest), fortissimus (bravest / most brave).

Regular comparison

Most Latin adjectives follow predictable patterns when forming their comparative and superlative. Once you know the stem of the positive adjective, you just attach the right suffix.

First and second declension adjectives

These are your -us, -a, -um adjectives (like altus, alta, altum).

• Find the stem by dropping the genitive singular ending (e.g., altus → stem alt-)
• Comparative: stem + -ior (m./f.), -ius (n.) → altior, altius
• Superlative: stem + -issimus, -issima, -issimum → altissimus, -a, -um

Third declension adjectives

These adjectives (like fortis, forte) form comparatives and superlatives the same way.

• Find the stem from the genitive singular (e.g., fortis → gen. fortis → stem fort-)
• Comparative: fortior, fortius
• Superlative: fortissimus, -a, -um

Formation of comparatives

Adding -ior/-ius

Here's the step-by-step process:

1. Take the positive degree adjective and find its stem (drop the ending from the genitive singular form).
2. Add -ior for masculine and feminine nominative singular (altior, higher).
3. Add -ius for neuter nominative singular (altius, higher).

This works for regular adjectives across all declensions.

Declension of comparatives

Comparative adjectives decline as third declension adjectives (two-termination). Here are the singular forms:

Formation of superlatives

Adding -issimus/-a/-um

1. Find the stem of the positive adjective.
2. Add -issimus (m.), -issima (f.), -issimum (n.).
3. Decline the result like a regular first/second declension adjective (bonus, -a, -um pattern).

Example: alt- + -issimus → altissimus, altissima, altissimum (highest, tallest).

Special rules for -er adjectives

Adjectives whose masculine nominative ends in -er form their superlative differently. Instead of adding -issimus to the stem, you keep the full -er form and add -rimus, -rima, -rimum.

• pulcher → pulcherrimus (most beautiful)
• ācer → ācerrimus (sharpest)
• celer → celerrimus (fastest)

Note that the comparative is still regular: pulchrior, ācrior, celerior.

A small group of adjectives ending in -ilis also has a special superlative with -limus: facilis → facillimus (easiest), difficilis → difficillimus (most difficult), similis → simillimus (most similar).

Irregular comparison

Some of the most common Latin adjectives have completely unpredictable comparative and superlative forms. These simply need to be memorized.

Common irregular adjectives

A note on plūs: in the singular it functions as a neuter noun (often with a partitive genitive), not as a regular adjective. In the plural (plūrēs, plūra) it behaves like a normal third declension adjective.

Defective comparisons

Some adjectives lack one or more degrees of comparison.

• prior (former) and prīmus (first) have no positive degree adjective they derive from in standard usage.
• Certain adjectives borrow forms from different roots for different degrees, so the three forms don't look related at all (as with bonus / melior / optimus).

When you encounter a comparative or superlative that doesn't seem to match any positive form you know, check whether it belongs to one of these defective or suppletive sets.

Comparison with quam

Latin has two main ways to express "than" in a comparison: the word quam and the ablative of comparison.

Quam with matching cases

Quam works like English "than." The two things being compared appear in the same grammatical case:

• Marcus altior est quam Quintus. (Marcus is taller than Quintus.) Both names are nominative.
• Vīdī virum fortiōrem quam Marcum. (I saw a man braver than Marcus.) Both are accusative because they're objects of vīdī.

This construction is especially useful when clarity matters or when you're comparing actions: Facilius est dīcere quam facere. (It is easier to say than to do.)

Ablative of comparison

As an alternative to quam, you can put the second element of comparison in the ablative case with no quam:

• Marcus altior Quintō est. (Marcus is taller than Quintus.)

This is more concise and shows up frequently in poetry. It works best when the first element is nominative or accusative; in other cases, it can create ambiguity, so quam is preferred.

Absolute superlatives

Not every superlative means "the most X." Sometimes a superlative form expresses a very high degree of a quality without comparing to anyone or anything.

Meaning vs. relative superlatives

• Relative superlative: fortissimus omnium = "the bravest of all" (compared to a group)
• Absolute superlative: vir fortissimus = "a very brave man" (no comparison, just emphasis)

Context is your guide. If there's a partitive genitive (like omnium, "of all") or another clear group, the superlative is relative. Without that context, it's often absolute and best translated as "very" or "extremely."

Formation and usage

Absolute superlatives are formed exactly the same way as relative superlatives (-issimus/-a/-um, -rimus/-a/-um for -er adjectives). The difference is purely in meaning and context. You'll see them often in descriptive or rhetorical passages where the author wants to emphasize a quality: Rēx erat potentissimus can mean "The king was very powerful" rather than "The king was the most powerful."

Adverbial comparisons

Adverbs have their own degrees of comparison, and they're closely tied to adjective forms.

Formation from adjectives

Irregular adverb comparisons

These correspond to the irregular adjectives and must be memorized:

Comparison in context

Attributive vs. predicative use

Comparative and superlative adjectives can be used in two positions:

• Attributive (directly modifying a noun): vir melior, "a better man"
• Predicative (completing a linking verb): vir est melior, "the man is better"

Superlatives appear frequently in attributive position to highlight a quality: optimus amīcus, "the best friend."

Comparison in poetry vs. prose

Prose writers tend to use quam constructions for clarity, especially in complex sentences. Poets favor the ablative of comparison because it's shorter and fits meter more easily. Poetry also uses comparatives and superlatives more figuratively, while prose tends toward more literal, logical comparisons.

Translation strategies

Rendering comparatives in English

• For short English adjectives, use the "-er" form: altior → "taller"
• For longer English adjectives, use "more": studiōsior → "more studious"
• For equal comparisons, watch for tam...quam ("as...as")
• Always check whether quam or an ablative of comparison signals what's being compared

Expressing superlatives effectively

• Short English adjectives take "-est": altissimus → "tallest"
• Longer ones take "most": studiōsissimus → "most studious"
• If context suggests no group comparison, translate as "very" (absolute superlative)
• Phrases like omnium or inter omnēs signal a true relative superlative and pair well with "of all" in your translation