🚴🏼‍♀️Educational Psychology Unit 5 – Information Processing and Memory

Key Concepts and Terminology

• Information processing involves the cognitive processes of acquiring, storing, and using information
• Sensory memory briefly holds sensory information (visual, auditory, etc.) for a short duration
• Working memory temporarily stores and manipulates information for cognitive tasks
• Short-term memory holds a limited amount of information for a brief period (typically 15-30 seconds)
• Long-term memory stores vast amounts of information for an extended period or permanently
• Encoding is the process of converting information into a format that can be stored in memory
  • Involves attention, rehearsal, and associating new information with existing knowledge
• Retrieval is the process of accessing stored information from memory
• Forgetting occurs when stored information cannot be retrieved or accessed
• Metacognition refers to the awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes and memory capabilities

Information Processing Models

• Information processing models describe how the human brain processes, stores, and retrieves information
• The Atkinson-Shiffrin model (multi-store model) proposes three stages of memory: sensory, short-term, and long-term
  • Information moves from sensory memory to short-term memory through attention and rehearsal
  • Information transfers from short-term memory to long-term memory through encoding and consolidation
• The Baddeley-Hitch model (working memory model) expands on short-term memory, introducing the concept of working memory
  • Working memory consists of the central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer
• The levels of processing model suggests that the depth of processing during encoding affects memory retention
  • Shallow processing (structural, phonemic) leads to weaker memory traces
  • Deep processing (semantic, elaborative) results in stronger, more durable memory traces
• Parallel distributed processing (PDP) models propose that information is processed simultaneously across multiple neural networks

Sensory Memory and Attention

• Sensory memory briefly holds sensory information for a short duration (a few seconds)
• Iconic memory stores visual information, while echoic memory stores auditory information
• Attention is the process of selectively focusing on specific stimuli while ignoring others
• Bottom-up processing is driven by the characteristics of the stimuli (salient features, novelty)
• Top-down processing is influenced by the individual's goals, expectations, and prior knowledge
• Selective attention allows individuals to focus on relevant information while filtering out irrelevant stimuli
• Divided attention involves simultaneously attending to multiple tasks or stimuli
  • Performance on each task may be reduced compared to focusing on a single task
• Sustained attention (vigilance) is the ability to maintain focus on a task over an extended period

Working Memory and Short-Term Storage

• Working memory is a limited-capacity system that temporarily stores and manipulates information
• The central executive controls and coordinates the components of working memory
• The phonological loop stores and rehearses verbal and auditory information
  • Consists of the phonological store (inner ear) and the articulatory rehearsal process (inner voice)
• The visuospatial sketchpad stores and manipulates visual and spatial information
• The episodic buffer integrates information from various sources and links it to long-term memory
• Short-term memory has a limited capacity, typically holding 7 ± 2 items (Miller's Law)
• Chunking is the process of grouping individual items into larger, meaningful units to increase storage capacity
• Maintenance rehearsal involves repeating information to keep it active in short-term memory
• Elaborative rehearsal involves associating new information with existing knowledge to facilitate encoding into long-term memory

Long-Term Memory and Storage

• Long-term memory has a vast storage capacity and can hold information for an extended period or permanently
• Declarative memory (explicit memory) stores facts, events, and experiences that can be consciously recalled
  • Episodic memory stores personal experiences and events with specific temporal and spatial contexts
  • Semantic memory stores general knowledge, facts, and concepts independent of personal experience
• Procedural memory (implicit memory) stores skills, habits, and procedures that can be performed automatically
• Prospective memory involves remembering to perform an action in the future
• Consolidation is the process of stabilizing memory traces over time, making them more resistant to interference
• Retrieval cues (context, associations) help access stored information in long-term memory
• Priming is the unconscious activation of memory traces that influences subsequent processing or behavior

Memory Encoding and Retrieval

• Encoding is the process of converting information into a format that can be stored in memory
• Acoustic encoding focuses on the sound and auditory aspects of information
• Visual encoding focuses on the visual and spatial characteristics of information
• Semantic encoding involves processing the meaning and associations of information
• Retrieval is the process of accessing stored information from memory
• Recall involves actively retrieving information from memory without cues (free recall) or with minimal cues (cued recall)
• Recognition involves identifying previously encountered information among alternatives (multiple-choice, true/false)
• Context-dependent memory suggests that retrieval is more effective when the context during encoding matches the context during retrieval
• State-dependent memory suggests that retrieval is more effective when the individual's internal state (mood, drug-induced) during encoding matches the state during retrieval

Factors Affecting Memory

• Attention and focus during encoding influence the quality and durability of memory traces
• Motivation and interest in the material being learned can enhance encoding and retrieval
• Emotional arousal can enhance memory for emotionally charged events (flashbulb memories)
• Prior knowledge and existing schemas provide a framework for organizing and integrating new information
• Mnemonic devices (acronyms, rhymes, imagery) can aid in encoding and retrieval of specific information
• Spaced practice (distributed practice) leads to better long-term retention compared to massed practice (cramming)
• Retrieval practice (testing) enhances long-term memory by strengthening memory traces and providing feedback
• Sleep plays a crucial role in memory consolidation, particularly for declarative and procedural memories
• Interference can disrupt memory, with proactive interference (old information interfering with new) and retroactive interference (new information interfering with old)

Applications in Education

• Instructional design should consider the limitations of working memory and the importance of attention
• Presenting information in multiple modalities (visual, auditory) can enhance encoding and retrieval
• Encouraging deep processing through elaboration, self-explanation, and relating new information to prior knowledge
• Using spaced practice and retrieval practice to promote long-term retention and transfer of learning
• Providing opportunities for active learning and engagement to maintain attention and motivation
• Incorporating mnemonic devices and memory strategies to support encoding and retrieval of specific information
• Designing assessments that align with the desired level of processing and retrieval (recall, recognition, application)
• Creating learning environments that minimize distractions and promote focused attention
• Encouraging students to reflect on their own learning processes and develop metacognitive skills