19.3 Environmental policy and international agreements
4 min read•august 7, 2024
Environmental policies and international agreements are crucial for addressing global challenges like climate change and biodiversity loss. These frameworks set targets, establish regulations, and promote cooperation among nations to protect our planet's resources and ecosystems.
From the to the , international treaties have made significant strides in environmental protection. National laws and impact assessments complement these efforts, while principles like "polluter pays" guide policy-making to ensure sustainable resource management.
International Environmental Agreements
Global Climate Change Agreements
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- Paris Agreement, legally binding international treaty on climate change adopted in 2015
- Aims to limit global warming to well below 2°C, preferably 1.5°C, compared to pre-industrial levels
- Requires countries to submit nationally determined contributions (NDCs) outlining their emissions reduction targets and climate action plans
- Includes provisions for climate finance, technology transfer, and capacity building to support developing countries
- , international agreement linked to the UNFCCC adopted in 1997
- Set legally binding emissions reduction targets for developed countries (Annex I Parties) during two commitment periods (2008-2012 and 2013-2020)
- Introduced market-based mechanisms such as emissions trading, Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and Joint Implementation (JI) to help countries meet their targets
- United States did not ratify the protocol, and Canada withdrew in 2011
- , international environmental treaty adopted in 1992
- Provides a framework for international cooperation to combat climate change and its impacts
- Recognizes the principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities" between developed and developing countries
- Holds an annual Conference of the Parties (COP) to assess progress and negotiate further actions
Agreements on Ozone Layer Protection and Biodiversity Conservation
- Montreal Protocol, international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer adopted in 1987
- Phases out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
- Considered one of the most successful international environmental agreements, with universal ratification and significant reductions in ODS emissions
- Amendments have accelerated the phase-out schedules and added new controlled substances (Montreal 1997, Beijing 1999, Kigali 2016)
- , international treaty for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity adopted in 1992
- Aims to conserve biodiversity, sustainably use its components, and ensure fair and equitable sharing of benefits from genetic resources
- Includes the (2000) and the (2010)
- Promotes the development of by member countries
Environmental Law and Legislation
National and International Environmental Legislation
- Environmental legislation, laws and regulations enacted by governments to protect the environment and human health
- Covers various issues such as air and water quality, waste management, , and toxic substances control
- Examples include the (United States), the (United Kingdom), and the (Australia)
- Enforced by regulatory agencies such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the United States and the European Environment Agency (EEA) in the European Union
- International environmental law, set of treaties, conventions, and customary rules that govern the relations between states on environmental matters
- Addresses transboundary environmental issues such as climate change, ozone depletion, biodiversity loss, and marine pollution
- Includes principles such as the prevention of transboundary harm, the , and the
- Implemented through international organizations such as the and the
Environmental Impact Assessment
- , process of evaluating the likely environmental impacts of a proposed project or development
- Identifies potential positive and negative impacts on the environment, human health, and social and economic conditions
- Considers alternatives to the proposed action and proposes measures to mitigate or avoid adverse impacts
- Required by law in many countries for projects with significant environmental effects ( in the United States, Environmental Impact Assessment Directive in the European Union)
- Promotes public participation and transparency in decision-making processes
Environmental Policy Principles
Precautionary Principle and Polluter Pays Principle
- Precautionary principle, approach to risk management that states that if an action or policy has a suspected risk of causing harm to the public or the environment, the burden of proof falls on those taking the action to demonstrate its safety
- Justifies preventive measures even in the absence of full scientific certainty about the causes and effects of environmental harm
- Incorporated into international environmental agreements such as the (1992) and the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (2000)
- Applied in various contexts such as the regulation of genetically modified organisms (GMOs), the use of pesticides, and the management of chemical substances
- Polluter pays principle, environmental policy principle that requires the costs of pollution prevention, control, and remediation to be borne by those responsible for causing the pollution
- Aims to internalize the external costs of environmental damage and provide incentives for polluters to reduce their emissions and adopt cleaner technologies
- Implemented through various policy instruments such as environmental taxes, charges, and tradable permits
- Recognized in international environmental agreements such as the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (1992) and the European Union's Environmental Liability Directive (2004)
- Examples include carbon taxes on fossil fuels, landfill taxes on waste disposal, and water pollution charges on industrial effluents
Key Terms to Review (26)
Biodiversity conservation: Biodiversity conservation is the practice of protecting, preserving, and managing the variety of life on Earth, including species, ecosystems, and genetic diversity. This concept is critical for maintaining ecosystem services, promoting ecological balance, and ensuring the resilience of natural systems against environmental changes. Effective biodiversity conservation strategies often involve collaboration among various stakeholders, including governments, NGOs, and local communities, to implement sustainable practices and policies.
Carbon trading: Carbon trading is a market-based approach to controlling pollution by providing economic incentives for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. This system allows countries or companies to buy and sell carbon credits, which represent the right to emit a certain amount of carbon dioxide or equivalent greenhouse gases. By facilitating the exchange of these credits, carbon trading aims to encourage emission reductions where it is most cost-effective, supporting efforts to mitigate climate change and manage ocean chemistry.
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety: The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety is an international agreement aimed at ensuring the safe handling, transport, and use of living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology. This protocol is significant for promoting environmental protection while enabling countries to make informed decisions regarding biotechnology and its potential risks.
Clean Air Act: The Clean Air Act is a comprehensive federal law in the United States that regulates air emissions from stationary and mobile sources to protect public health and the environment. Originally passed in 1963 and significantly amended in 1970 and 1990, it establishes air quality standards and authorizes the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to enforce them, addressing issues like smog, acid rain, and ozone depletion.
Climate change mitigation: Climate change mitigation refers to efforts aimed at reducing or preventing the emission of greenhouse gases, which are responsible for global warming and climate change. These efforts can include transitioning to renewable energy sources, enhancing energy efficiency, and developing technologies that capture and store carbon emissions. The goal is to limit the severity of future climate impacts through various strategies and international agreements that promote sustainability and environmental protection.
Climate justice: Climate justice is the concept that addresses the ethical dimensions of climate change, emphasizing fairness and equity in both the causes and consequences of climate impacts. It highlights how marginalized communities, often least responsible for greenhouse gas emissions, suffer disproportionately from climate-related disasters and environmental degradation. This term connects deeply to environmental policy and international agreements by stressing the need for inclusive approaches that prioritize vulnerable populations while also guiding ethical considerations in Earth Systems Science.
Convention on Biological Diversity: The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international treaty aimed at conserving the world's biodiversity, promoting sustainable use of its components, and ensuring fair sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources. The CBD highlights the importance of biodiversity in maintaining ecosystem services and addresses the urgent need to tackle biodiversity loss through various conservation strategies.
Emission reduction targets: Emission reduction targets are specific goals set by governments or organizations to decrease the amount of greenhouse gases emitted into the atmosphere over a defined period. These targets are crucial for addressing climate change and are often established within the framework of environmental policies and international agreements, aiming to limit global warming and its associated impacts.
Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act: The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (EPBC Act) is an Australian law enacted in 1999 aimed at protecting the environment, particularly focusing on the conservation of biodiversity and ensuring sustainable development. It establishes a framework for assessing the environmental impact of actions that may significantly affect matters of national environmental significance, thereby promoting better environmental governance in relation to both local and international concerns.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a systematic process used to evaluate the potential environmental effects of a proposed project or development before it is carried out. This process involves analyzing the likely impacts on natural and human environments, which helps decision-makers ensure that environmental factors are considered alongside economic and social factors during planning and approval stages.
Environmental Protection Act: The Environmental Protection Act (EPA) is a key piece of legislation aimed at regulating pollution and protecting the environment from harmful activities. It establishes frameworks for managing air and water quality, hazardous waste, and the conservation of natural resources, ensuring that environmental concerns are integrated into government policy and decision-making processes.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC): The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is an international body established by the United Nations that assesses scientific information related to climate change, its impacts, and potential adaptation and mitigation strategies. The IPCC plays a crucial role in informing policymakers by providing comprehensive and rigorous scientific assessments, which are essential for global environmental policy and international agreements aimed at addressing climate change.
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN): The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is a global organization dedicated to the conservation of nature and sustainable use of natural resources. It plays a vital role in environmental policy and international agreements by providing a platform for governments, NGOs, and scientists to collaborate on biodiversity conservation initiatives, develop international environmental standards, and facilitate research and knowledge sharing.
Kyoto Protocol: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty established in 1997 that commits its parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, based on the premise that global warming exists and human-made CO2 emissions have caused it. It represents a significant step in global environmental policy, seeking to curb climate change through legally binding targets for developed countries while promoting sustainable development.
Montreal Protocol: The Montreal Protocol is an international treaty designed to phase out substances that deplete the ozone layer, particularly chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons. Established in 1987, this agreement represents a significant milestone in environmental policy, as it reflects a collective global commitment to protect the Earth's atmosphere and reduce harmful emissions.
Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-sharing: The Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-sharing is a legally binding international agreement that aims to ensure fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources. It establishes a framework for the conservation of biodiversity while promoting sustainable development, connecting to global efforts in environmental policy and international agreements.
National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs): National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs) are comprehensive frameworks developed by countries to address biodiversity loss and promote conservation efforts. These plans are essential components of international agreements like the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and aim to integrate biodiversity considerations into national policies, strategies, and actions across various sectors. By outlining specific goals, objectives, and actions, NBSAPs guide countries in effectively managing their natural resources while fostering sustainable development.
National Environmental Policy Act: The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) is a U.S. environmental law enacted in 1969 that requires federal agencies to assess the environmental effects of their proposed actions before making decisions. NEPA established a systematic process for evaluating the potential environmental impacts of federal projects and decisions, ensuring that the public is informed and can participate in the decision-making process.
Paris Agreement: The Paris Agreement is a landmark international treaty adopted in 2015 to combat climate change and limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius, aiming for a target of 1.5 degrees Celsius. It represents a collective commitment from countries around the world to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, enhance adaptive capacity, and promote sustainable development, aligning with both mitigation and adaptation strategies.
Polluter Pays Principle: The polluter pays principle is an environmental policy concept that holds that those responsible for producing pollution should bear the costs associated with managing it to prevent damage to human health or the environment. This principle encourages businesses and individuals to take responsibility for their environmental impact, promoting sustainability and accountability. It also supports the idea that financial burdens of pollution should not fall on society at large but rather on the polluters themselves.
Precautionary principle: The precautionary principle is a strategy used to prevent harm when scientific understanding is incomplete, suggesting that the burden of proof falls on those advocating for an activity rather than those opposing it. This principle encourages taking proactive steps to mitigate potential risks, especially in environmental policy and ethical discussions regarding sustainability and human health.
Rio Declaration on Environment and Development: The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development is a set of 27 principles that guide sustainable development worldwide, established during the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. It emphasizes the need for environmental protection, sustainable development, and public participation in decision-making processes, highlighting the interdependence of economic growth and environmental health.
Sustainability: Sustainability refers to the capacity to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It encompasses environmental, social, and economic dimensions, emphasizing a balanced approach that promotes long-term health for both people and the planet. This concept is crucial in shaping policies and international agreements aimed at addressing global challenges, while also requiring interdisciplinary cooperation to develop effective solutions.
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP): The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is a global organization that coordinates the United Nations' environmental activities and assists countries in implementing environmentally sound policies. Established in 1972, UNEP plays a crucial role in setting the global environmental agenda, promoting sustainable development through sound environmental practices, and fostering international cooperation on environmental issues.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international treaty that aims to address climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and promoting sustainable development. Established in 1992, it provides a framework for countries to collaborate and implement measures to combat climate change and its impacts, emphasizing the need for global cooperation in environmental policy.
World Wildlife Fund (WWF): The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) is a leading international non-governmental organization dedicated to conservation and environmental protection. Established in 1961, the WWF focuses on reducing humanity's impact on the environment through various initiatives, including preserving biodiversity, advocating for sustainable practices, and addressing climate change. By collaborating with governments, businesses, and local communities, WWF works to create a world where people and nature coexist harmoniously.