8.3 Key Figures: Galileo, Newton, and the Royal Society
4 min read•august 6, 2024
The Scientific Revolution brought groundbreaking discoveries that reshaped our understanding of the universe. Key figures like Galileo and Newton challenged long-held beliefs with their observations and theories, revolutionizing astronomy and physics.
The played a crucial role in fostering scientific progress. Founded in 1660, it provided a platform for scholars to share ideas and validate findings through peer review, laying the groundwork for modern scientific methods.
Galileo Galilei and the Telescope
Galileo's Astronomical Discoveries
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- (1564-1642) was an Italian astronomer, physicist, and mathematician who made groundbreaking observations of celestial bodies using the telescope
- Improved the design of the refracting telescope in 1609, increasing its magnification power up to 20 times
- Used his telescope to make detailed observations of the Moon's surface, discovering that it was not perfectly smooth but had mountains, craters, and valleys
- Observed four of Jupiter's largest moons (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto) in 1610, providing evidence that not all celestial bodies revolved around the Earth
- Discovered sunspots and observed the phases of Venus, further supporting the heliocentric model proposed by Copernicus
Conflict with the Catholic Church
- Galileo's findings challenged the prevailing geocentric model of the universe supported by the Catholic Church, which placed Earth at the center of the universe
- Published his observations and arguments in favor of the heliocentric model in various works, including "Sidereus Nuncius" (Starry Messenger) and ""
- Faced opposition and censorship from the Church, which viewed his ideas as heretical and contrary to biblical teachings
- In 1633, Galileo was tried by the Roman Inquisition and forced to recant his beliefs, spending the remainder of his life under house arrest
- Despite the Church's opposition, Galileo's work laid the foundation for the acceptance of the heliocentric model and the advancement of modern astronomy
Isaac Newton's Laws and Principia Mathematica
Newton's Laws of Motion
- (1643-1727) was an English mathematician, physicist, and astronomer who made seminal contributions to the scientific revolution
- Developed three fundamental that describe the behavior of objects in the universe
- Law of Inertia: An object at rest stays at rest, and an object in motion stays in motion with the same speed and in the same direction, unless acted upon by an unbalanced force
- Law of Acceleration: The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass ()
- Law of Action-Reaction: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
- These laws laid the foundation for classical mechanics and provided a unified explanation for the motion of objects on Earth and in the heavens
Universal Gravitation and Principia Mathematica
- In his groundbreaking work "" (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), published in 1687, Newton introduced the law of universal gravitation
- The law states that every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them ()
- Newton's law of universal gravitation explained the orbits of planets and moons, the trajectory of comets, and the tides on Earth
- "Principia Mathematica" also presented Newton's three laws of motion and his development of calculus, revolutionizing the fields of mathematics and physics
- Newton's work unified terrestrial and celestial mechanics, demonstrating that the same natural laws govern motion on Earth and in the heavens
The Royal Society and Its Members
Establishment and Purpose of the Royal Society
- The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, known simply as the Royal Society, was founded in 1660
- Established as a learned society for the promotion of scientific inquiry and the exchange of ideas among scholars
- Received royal patronage from King Charles II in 1662, granting it official status and recognition
- The Society's motto, "Nullius in verba" (Take nobody's word for it), emphasized the importance of experimental evidence and skepticism in scientific research
- Played a crucial role in the scientific revolution by providing a platform for the dissemination of knowledge and the validation of scientific findings through peer review
Notable Members and Their Contributions
- (1627-1691) was a founding member of the Royal Society and is considered the first modern chemist
- Conducted experiments on the properties of gases, leading to the formulation of Boyle's Law, which describes the inverse relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas at constant temperature
- Emphasized the importance of rigorous experimentation and precise measurement in scientific inquiry
- Robert Hooke (1635-1703) was another prominent member of the Royal Society, serving as its Curator of Experiments
- Made significant contributions to the fields of microscopy, geology, and architecture
- Used a compound microscope to observe and describe the cellular structure of plants, coining the term "cell" in his book "Micrographia" (1665)
- Proposed a wave theory of light and discovered the law of elasticity, known as Hooke's Law, which states that the force required to extend or compress a spring is directly proportional to the distance of extension or compression
- Other notable members of the Royal Society during this period included Christopher Wren, Edmond Halley, and Isaac Newton, who served as its president from 1703 to 1727 The Royal Society's emphasis on experimental evidence, open communication, and peer review helped to establish the foundations of modern scientific methodology and contributed to the rapid advancement of science during the scientific revolution.
Key Terms to Review (18)
Academy of sciences: An academy of sciences is an organization dedicated to promoting scientific knowledge and research, often composed of esteemed scholars and experts in various fields. These institutions played a pivotal role in the advancement of science and the establishment of new methodologies during the Early Modern period, contributing to the intellectual environment that supported figures like Galileo and Newton, and shaping the scientific landscape of Eastern European powers such as Prussia and Russia.
Age of Enlightenment: The Age of Enlightenment was an intellectual and cultural movement in Europe during the late 17th and 18th centuries that emphasized reason, science, and individualism over tradition. This era fostered a spirit of inquiry and skepticism towards established norms, encouraging thinkers to challenge authority and seek knowledge through empirical evidence and rational thought. It laid the groundwork for modern philosophy, political theory, and scientific exploration, significantly impacting the roles of figures like Galileo, Newton, and the Royal Society.
Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems: The 'Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems' is a work by Galileo Galilei, published in 1632, that compares the geocentric model of the universe, which places the Earth at the center, with the heliocentric model, where the Sun is at the center. This dialogue plays a crucial role in challenging established scientific and religious views of the time, reflecting Galileo's advocacy for the heliocentric model as well as his conflicts with the Catholic Church.
Empiricism: Empiricism is a philosophical theory that emphasizes the role of sensory experience and evidence from the physical world in the formation of knowledge. This approach rejects speculative reasoning that is not grounded in observable phenomena, advocating for observation and experimentation as critical components of understanding reality.
Galileo Galilei: Galileo Galilei was an Italian astronomer, physicist, and mathematician who played a crucial role in the Scientific Revolution during the early modern period. Known for his advancements in observational astronomy and support of heliocentrism, Galileo's work laid the groundwork for modern science and challenged traditional views held by the Church and society at large.
Gravity: Gravity is a fundamental force of nature that attracts objects with mass toward one another, providing the basis for understanding motion and celestial phenomena. This force was crucial in shaping the scientific revolution, as key figures sought to explain how and why objects move as they do, particularly in relation to celestial bodies and terrestrial motion.
Heliocentrism: Heliocentrism is the astronomical model in which the Earth and other planets revolve around the Sun at the center of the solar system. This revolutionary idea challenged the long-held geocentric view, fundamentally altering humanity's understanding of the cosmos and laying the groundwork for modern astronomy.
Isaac Newton: Isaac Newton was a key figure in the Scientific Revolution and is best known for his contributions to physics, mathematics, and astronomy, particularly through his laws of motion and universal gravitation. His work laid the foundation for modern science and greatly influenced the way people understood the natural world, connecting him closely with other prominent figures of his time, such as Galileo, and institutions like the Royal Society.
Laws of motion: The laws of motion are a set of three physical laws formulated by Sir Isaac Newton that describe the relationship between the motion of an object and the forces acting on it. These laws laid the foundation for classical mechanics, illustrating how objects move in response to forces, which was a significant shift in understanding motion during the Early Modern period. The first law states that an object at rest will stay at rest, and an object in motion will continue in motion unless acted upon by a net external force. The second law establishes a direct relationship between force, mass, and acceleration, while the third law explains that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. Together, these principles transformed scientific inquiry and encouraged empirical experimentation in the study of physics.
Mechanical philosophy: Mechanical philosophy is an early modern philosophical perspective that views the universe as a vast machine operating according to natural laws, primarily influenced by the work of figures like Galileo and Newton. This approach emphasizes the importance of empirical observation and mathematical reasoning, seeking to explain physical phenomena through mechanical principles rather than relying on mystical or religious interpretations.
Philosophiæ naturalis principia mathematica: Philosophiæ naturalis principia mathematica, commonly known as the Principia, is a foundational work in physics and mathematics authored by Sir Isaac Newton, published in 1687. This monumental text laid the groundwork for classical mechanics, introducing the laws of motion and universal gravitation, which fundamentally transformed scientific thought and inquiry during the early modern period.
Publication of Newton's Principia: The publication of Newton's 'Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica' in 1687 marked a revolutionary moment in the field of science, presenting groundbreaking ideas on motion and gravitation. This work established the foundation for classical mechanics and introduced the laws of motion, fundamentally altering the way people understood the natural world and influencing future scientific inquiry. Newton's Principia also reflected the growing importance of empirical evidence and mathematical reasoning, linking it to the rise of modern science and the role of institutions like the Royal Society.
Rationalism: Rationalism is a philosophical movement that emphasizes reason as the primary source of knowledge, asserting that certain truths can be understood through intellectual and deductive processes rather than sensory experience. This approach laid the groundwork for significant advancements in science, politics, and philosophy during the Early Modern period, encouraging individuals to question traditional beliefs and seek empirical evidence to support claims.
Renaissance: The Renaissance was a cultural and intellectual movement that began in Italy during the late 14th century and spread across Europe, characterized by a revival of interest in the classical art, literature, and learning of ancient Greece and Rome. This period marked a significant shift in thought and creativity, leading to advancements in science, philosophy, and the arts, which laid the groundwork for modern Western civilization.
Robert Boyle: Robert Boyle was a 17th-century Anglo-Irish philosopher and scientist, widely considered one of the founders of modern chemistry. He is best known for Boyle's Law, which describes the inversely proportional relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas. His work laid the foundation for experimental scientific methods and emphasized the importance of observation in science, aligning with the principles established by figures like Galileo and Newton and contributing to the activities of the Royal Society.
Royal Society: The Royal Society is a prestigious scientific institution established in 1660 in England, focused on promoting and advancing natural knowledge through experimentation and observation. It played a key role in the scientific revolution, providing a platform for scholars to collaborate and share their discoveries, fostering the spirit of inquiry that characterized the era of the Copernican Revolution and beyond.
Scientific method: The scientific method is a systematic approach used for inquiry and experimentation that seeks to build knowledge through observation, hypothesis formulation, experimentation, and conclusion. This process emphasizes empiricism, where conclusions are drawn from observable evidence and repeated testing, distinguishing it from other forms of understanding like intuition or tradition.
Trial of Galileo: The Trial of Galileo refers to the proceedings that took place in 1633 when the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei was tried by the Roman Catholic Church for heresy. This trial stemmed from Galileo's advocacy of the heliocentric model of the solar system, which posited that the Earth revolved around the Sun, contradicting the geocentric view endorsed by the Church at the time. The trial marked a significant conflict between science and religious authority during an era when scientific inquiry was beginning to flourish.