12.4 Eastern Europe: Ottoman Empire, Poland, and Sweden
5 min read•august 6, 2024
The , , and Sweden faced significant challenges during the 16th and 17th centuries. These powers struggled with internal issues and external threats, reshaping the balance of power in Eastern Europe.
Meanwhile, Russia emerged as a major player under 's leadership. His reforms and military successes, particularly in the , established Russia as a dominant force in the region, altering the European state system.
Ottoman Empire
Decline and Challenges
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- Ottoman Empire experienced a gradual decline in the 16th and 17th centuries due to a combination of factors
- Overextension of territory and resources strained the empire's ability to effectively govern and defend its borders
- Corruption and decentralization of power weakened the central government's control over provincial administrators and military leaders
- Economic challenges arose from inflation, debasement of currency, and disruption of trade routes (Silk Road)
- European powers, such as Austria and Russia, posed increasing military threats to Ottoman territories in Europe and the Mediterranean
Suleiman the Magnificent's Reign
- Suleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520-1566) was one of the most prominent and successful Ottoman sultans
- Expanded the empire to its greatest territorial extent, including conquests in Europe (Hungary, Balkans), Middle East (Iraq, Yemen), and North Africa (Algiers, Tripoli)
- Implemented legal and administrative reforms that centralized power and improved governance, earning him the title "Lawgiver"
- Patronized art, literature, and architecture, leading to a cultural golden age (Suleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul, poetry of Bâkî)
- Formed alliances and diplomatic relations with European powers, such as France, to counter Habsburg influence
Janissaries and Military Challenges
- were elite infantry units that formed the backbone of the Ottoman military, known for their discipline and loyalty to the sultan
- Recruited through the devşirme system, where young Christian boys from conquered territories were conscripted, converted to Islam, and trained as soldiers
- Over time, the Janissaries became a powerful political force, influencing succession and government policies
- Janissaries' increasing involvement in politics and resistance to modernization efforts contributed to the empire's decline and weakened military effectiveness
- Advancements in European military technology (firearms, artillery) and tactics gradually eroded the Ottoman military advantage
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
Formation and Structure
- Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was formed by the in 1569, uniting the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
- Became one of the largest and most populous states in Europe, spanning from the to the Black Sea
- Adopted an elective monarchy, where the king was chosen by the (szlachta) rather than through hereditary succession
- Developed a unique political system known as the "," which granted extensive rights and privileges to the nobility
Liberum Veto and Political Dysfunction
- was a parliamentary procedure that allowed any single member of the Sejm (parliament) to veto legislation or dissolve the session
- Intended to protect minority rights and ensure consensus, but often led to political paralysis and gridlock
- Foreign powers, such as Russia and Prussia, exploited the liberum veto to interfere in Polish internal affairs and weaken the state
- Inability to enact reforms and modernize the state left the Commonwealth vulnerable to external threats and internal instability
Partitions and Decline
- refers to the series of territorial divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth by neighboring powers (Russia, Prussia, and Austria) in the late 18th century
- First Partition (1772) saw the Commonwealth lose nearly 30% of its territory and half of its population to the partitioning powers
- Attempts at reform, such as the Constitution of May 3, 1791, which established a hereditary monarchy and strengthened the central government, were met with opposition from neighboring powers and conservative nobles
- Second (1793) and Third (1795) Partitions resulted in the complete dissolution of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and its disappearance from the map of Europe for over a century
Rise of Russia and Sweden
Great Northern War and Shifting Power Balance
- Great Northern War (1700-1721) was a major conflict between Sweden and a coalition led by Russia, Denmark-Norway, and Saxony-Poland
- Sweden, a dominant power in Northern Europe under , sought to maintain its supremacy and territorial control in the Baltic region
- Russia, under Peter the Great, aimed to challenge Swedish power and gain access to the Baltic Sea to promote trade and modernization
- Decisive Russian victory at the (1709) marked a turning point in the war and the beginning of Sweden's decline as a great power
- (1721) ended the war, with Russia gaining significant territories (Estonia, Livonia, Ingria) and emerging as a major European power
Peter the Great's Reforms and Modernization
- Peter the Great (r. 1682-1725) implemented sweeping reforms to modernize Russia and transform it into a European-style state
- Traveled to Western Europe on the Grand Embassy (1697-1698) to study advanced technologies, military practices, and governance models
- Modernized the Russian military by introducing Western-style training, equipment (flintlock muskets), and tactics, and creating a professional standing army and navy
- Promoted education and cultural reforms, such as establishing the Academy of Sciences, encouraging translation of Western books, and adopting Western dress and customs
- Founded St. Petersburg (1703) as Russia's "window to Europe," a modern capital city designed to rival the great cities of Western Europe
Charles XII and Sweden's Decline
- Charles XII (r. 1697-1718) was a skilled military leader who sought to defend Sweden's territorial possessions and maintain its status as a great power
- Led successful campaigns early in the Great Northern War, including victories over Denmark-Norway (, 1700) and Saxony-Poland (, 1702)
- Invasion of Russia in 1707 proved disastrous, culminating in the decisive defeat at the Battle of Poltava and the destruction of the Swedish army
- Spent years in exile in the Ottoman Empire, attempting to secure support for a renewed war against Russia
- Death during a campaign in Norway (1718) left Sweden weakened and unable to regain its former power and influence in Northern Europe
Key Terms to Review (23)
Balkan Peninsula: The Balkan Peninsula is a geographic region in Southeast Europe, bounded by the Adriatic Sea to the west, the Ionian Sea to the southwest, the Aegean Sea to the southeast, and the Black Sea to the north. This area has been a crossroads of various cultures, empires, and religions, playing a significant role in historical conflicts and territorial disputes, particularly during the rise and expansion of the Ottoman Empire and its interactions with neighboring states like Poland and Sweden.
Baltic Sea: The Baltic Sea is a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean located in Northern Europe, bordered by several countries including Sweden, Finland, Russia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Germany. This sea has historically been significant for trade, military strategy, and cultural exchange, particularly in the context of Eastern Europe’s interactions with the Ottoman Empire, Poland, and Sweden.
Battle of Kliszów: The Battle of Kliszów was a significant military engagement fought on July 19, 1702, during the Great Northern War between the forces of the Swedish Empire and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This battle marked a decisive victory for the Swedish army, showcasing their military superiority and strategic dominance in Eastern Europe at the time.
Battle of Narva: The Battle of Narva was a significant military engagement fought on November 30, 1700, during the Great Northern War, where the Swedish army, under King Charles XII, achieved a stunning victory against a larger Russian force led by Tsar Peter the Great. This battle marked an early and decisive moment in the conflict, showcasing Sweden's military prowess and impacting the balance of power in Eastern Europe, particularly in relation to the ambitions of the Ottoman Empire and Poland.
Battle of Poltava: The Battle of Poltava was a pivotal confrontation fought on June 28, 1709, between the Russian Empire and the Swedish Empire during the Great Northern War. This decisive victory for Russia marked a significant turning point in the balance of power in Eastern Europe, leading to the decline of Swedish dominance and the rise of Russia as a major European power.
Charles XII: Charles XII was the King of Sweden from 1697 until his death in 1718, known for his military leadership during the Great Northern War. His reign was marked by Sweden's attempts to maintain its status as a great power in Eastern Europe, facing off against a coalition that included Russia, Denmark-Norway, and Poland-Lithuania.
Great Northern War: The Great Northern War (1700-1721) was a conflict primarily between Sweden and a coalition led by Russia, Denmark-Norway, and Saxony-Poland, aiming to challenge Sweden's dominance in the Baltic Sea region. The war marked a significant turning point in the balance of power in Eastern Europe, leading to the decline of Swedish power and the rise of Russia as a major player in European politics.
Janissaries: Janissaries were elite infantry soldiers in the Ottoman Empire, originally composed of Christian boys who were conscripted, converted to Islam, and trained to serve the sultan. They became a key military force, known for their discipline and loyalty, significantly influencing the power dynamics within the empire and contributing to its military successes.
Liberum veto: The liberum veto was a political mechanism used in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth that allowed any single member of the Sejm (the parliament) to block legislation or decisions, effectively requiring unanimous consent for any law to pass. This system was intended to protect the rights of individual nobles, but it ultimately led to political paralysis and inefficiency, hindering the ability of the state to respond effectively to external threats and internal issues.
Mercantilism: Mercantilism is an economic theory and practice that emerged in Europe during the late Middle Ages and dominated the early modern period, emphasizing the importance of accumulating wealth through trade and the belief that national strength could be maximized by limiting imports via tariffs and maximizing exports. This system viewed global wealth as static, meaning one nation’s gain was another nation’s loss, leading to competitive colonization and trade policies.
Nobility: Nobility refers to a social class that is typically associated with hereditary titles, privileges, and land ownership. This class often played a critical role in governance and societal structure, serving as advisors to monarchs, military leaders, and patrons of the arts. The influence of nobility extended beyond mere wealth; it was deeply tied to the culture and politics of their time, shaping court life and impacting the dynamics of power in various regions.
Noble's democracy: Noble's democracy refers to a political system in which the power and influence are primarily held by the nobility, with limited participation from the common people. This concept highlights the role of noble assemblies or councils in governance, particularly in Eastern Europe, where noble landowners exerted significant control over political decisions and local administration, often limiting the influence of monarchs and common citizens.
Ottoman Empire: The Ottoman Empire was a vast and influential Islamic empire that lasted from the late 13th century until the early 20th century, covering parts of Southeastern Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa. This empire was instrumental in shaping the political, cultural, and religious landscape of Eastern Europe, particularly through its interactions with neighboring powers such as Poland and Sweden during a time of significant change and upheaval.
Partitions of Poland: The Partitions of Poland were a series of three territorial divisions that occurred in the late 18th century, resulting in the dissolution of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This process involved Russia, Prussia, and Austria gradually encroaching on Polish territory, ultimately erasing Poland from the map of Europe by 1795. The partitions highlight the geopolitical struggles in Eastern Europe during a time of shifting power dynamics, particularly in relation to the Ottoman Empire and Sweden.
Peasantry: Peasantry refers to the class of rural, agricultural workers who primarily engage in subsistence farming and are often subject to the socio-economic hierarchies of their societies. In Eastern Europe, particularly during the time of the Ottoman Empire, Poland, and Sweden, the peasantry played a crucial role in sustaining the economy and social structure while often facing oppressive systems that dictated their lives.
Peter the Great: Peter the Great was the Tsar of Russia from 1682 until his death in 1725, known for his extensive reforms that aimed to modernize and westernize Russia. He transformed the Russian government, military, and culture, significantly impacting the development of Eastern European powers and their interactions with neighboring states.
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was a dual-state federation formed in 1569 that united the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania under a single monarch. This remarkable political entity was characterized by its unique system of governance, where the nobility held significant power, and it played a pivotal role in the geopolitical landscape of Eastern Europe during the early modern period.
Serfdom: Serfdom was a system of agricultural labor prevalent in Eastern Europe, particularly during the Early Modern period, where peasants were bound to the land and subject to the authority of landowners. This arrangement created a hierarchical society where serfs were obligated to work on their lord's estate in exchange for protection and a small plot of land for their subsistence. Serfdom became a defining feature of the social and economic landscape in regions like Poland and the territories influenced by the Ottoman Empire.
Swedish Empire: The Swedish Empire was a prominent European power from the 17th to the early 18th centuries, characterized by territorial expansion and military strength. During its height, the empire included parts of modern-day Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and territories in Northern Germany, asserting influence in the Baltic region and beyond. This period marked significant developments in Sweden's political, military, and cultural spheres, reflecting its role in the broader context of Eastern European dynamics, particularly with the Ottoman Empire and Poland.
Townspeople: Townspeople refer to the residents of towns and cities, particularly during the early modern period in Eastern Europe. They played a crucial role in the economic, social, and political landscapes of their regions, often forming a distinct class that was vital for urban development and trade.
Treaty of Karlowitz: The Treaty of Karlowitz, signed in 1699, marked a significant turning point in European history as it ended the Great Turkish War between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League, which included Austria, Poland, Venice, and Russia. This treaty resulted in substantial territorial losses for the Ottomans and signaled the beginning of their decline in power and influence in Eastern Europe, reshaping the political landscape of the region.
Treaty of Nystad: The Treaty of Nystad was a peace agreement signed in 1721 between Sweden and Russia, marking the end of the Great Northern War. This treaty significantly altered the balance of power in Eastern Europe, leading to the decline of Swedish dominance and the rise of Russian influence in the region. The treaty also facilitated territorial adjustments, with Sweden ceding territories to Russia, which helped solidify Russia's status as a major European power.
Union of Lublin: The Union of Lublin, established in 1569, was a significant agreement that united the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into a single political entity known as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This union marked a crucial moment in Eastern European history, creating one of the largest and most populous states in Europe at that time, significantly affecting the region's political landscape and its relations with neighboring powers such as the Ottoman Empire and Sweden.