🐉Early Chinese Art Unit 7 – Han Dynasty: Art, Trade, and Figural Imagery

Historical Context and Rise of the Han Dynasty

• Succeeded the short-lived Qin Dynasty (221-206 BCE) which unified China under a centralized government
• Founded by Liu Bang, later known as Emperor Gaozu, in 202 BCE after a period of civil war
• Established a strong central government with a bureaucratic system based on Confucian principles
  • Emphasized education and merit-based appointment of officials
  • Confucianism became the state ideology during the Han Dynasty
• Divided into two main periods: Western Han (202 BCE-9 CE) and Eastern Han (25-220 CE), separated by the brief Xin Dynasty (9-23 CE)
• Expanded Chinese territory through military conquests and diplomatic relations, particularly during the reign of Emperor Wu (141-87 BCE)
• Implemented various reforms and policies to strengthen the economy, such as the state monopoly on salt and iron production
• Population and urbanization increased significantly during the Han Dynasty, leading to advancements in agriculture, technology, and trade

Key Artistic Developments and Innovations

• Refinement of bronze casting techniques allowed for more intricate and larger-scale works
  • Lost-wax casting and piece-mold casting techniques were perfected
• Increased production and artistic development of ceramics, particularly glazed pottery and stoneware
• Emergence of distinct regional styles in pottery, such as the celadon glazes of Yue ware and the green-glazed pottery of Han Dynasty
• Advancements in silk weaving and embroidery techniques led to the production of high-quality textiles
  • Silk tapestries and embroidered textiles were used for clothing, decorative hangings, and diplomatic gifts
• Development of lacquerware, which involved applying layers of lacquer (derived from tree sap) onto wood or other materials
  • Lacquerware objects ranged from everyday items to luxury goods, often decorated with intricate designs and inlaid with precious materials
• Expansion of stone carving and relief sculpture, particularly in tomb art and architectural decoration
• Innovations in painting, such as the use of mineral pigments and the development of landscape and portrait painting

Trade Routes and Cultural Exchange

• Expansion of the Silk Roads, a network of trade routes connecting China with Central Asia, the Middle East, and beyond
  • Facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultural practices between China and other civilizations
  • Key commodities traded included silk, spices, precious stones, glassware, and horses
• Establishment of maritime trade routes, particularly during the Eastern Han period, connecting China with Southeast Asia, India, and the Roman Empire
  • Ports such as Guangzhou (Canton) became important centers for maritime trade
• Introduction of new crops, such as grapes, alfalfa, and pomegranates, through trade and cultural exchange
  • Adoption of foreign religions, particularly Buddhism, which began to spread in China during the Han Dynasty
• Diplomatic relations and cultural exchanges with neighboring states, such as the Xiongnu confederation, the Xianbei, and the Wuhuan
  • Han court sent envoys and engaged in gift exchange to maintain peace and establish alliances
• Influence of foreign artistic styles and motifs, particularly from Central Asia and the Hellenistic world, on Han art and craftsmanship

Figural Imagery in Han Art

• Prominence of figural imagery in Han art, particularly in tomb art and decorative objects
• Development of realistic and expressive human figures, often depicted in scenes of daily life, entertainment, or ritual
  • Terracotta warriors from the tomb of Emperor Qin Shi Huang showcase the attention to individual details and realistic portrayal of human figures
• Representation of mythical creatures and animals, such as dragons, phoenixes, and qilins, in various art forms
  • These creatures often symbolized power, good fortune, and other auspicious qualities
• Depiction of historical figures, such as emperors, officials, and famous scholars, in portrait sculpture and painting
• Inclusion of figural scenes in decorative arts, such as bronze mirrors, lacquerware, and silk textiles
  • These scenes often depicted auspicious symbols, mythological narratives, or scenes from literature and folklore
• Emergence of the "flying horse" motif, representing the swift and powerful horses imported from Central Asia
  • The flying horse became a popular subject in Han art, particularly in bronze and ceramic sculptures
• Representation of Confucian values and ideals through figural imagery, such as scenes of filial piety and moral exemplars

Materials and Techniques

• Bronze casting remained a significant art form during the Han Dynasty, with advancements in techniques and scale
  • Lost-wax casting allowed for the creation of intricate and hollow bronze objects
  • Piece-mold casting enabled the production of larger and more complex bronze sculptures
• Ceramics production expanded significantly, with the development of new glazing techniques and regional styles
  • Lead-glazed pottery, known as sancai (three-color) ware, emerged during the Han Dynasty
  • High-fired stoneware, such as Yue ware and proto-porcelain, showcased the technological advancements in ceramic production
• Lacquerware became increasingly sophisticated, with the use of carved, inlaid, and painted decoration
  • The process involved applying multiple layers of lacquer, derived from the sap of the lacquer tree (Toxicodendron vernicifluum), onto a prepared surface
• Stone carving and relief sculpture were used extensively in tomb art and architectural decoration
  • Techniques included low relief, high relief, and fully sculptural forms
  • Common materials included limestone, sandstone, and marble
• Silk weaving and embroidery reached new heights, with the production of intricate and colorful textiles
  • Techniques such as polychrome weaving, gauze weaving, and double-faced embroidery were developed
• Painting techniques evolved, with the use of mineral pigments and the development of landscape and portrait painting
  • Silk and paper were used as painting surfaces, in addition to walls and lacquerware
• Precious materials, such as gold, silver, and jade, were used in luxury objects and decorative elements
  • Techniques such as gilding, inlay, and openwork were employed to enhance the beauty and value of these objects

Symbolism and Iconography

• Widespread use of auspicious symbols and motifs in Han art, reflecting beliefs in cosmology, mythology, and Confucian values
• Dragons and phoenixes represented power, good fortune, and the harmony between yin and yang
  • The dragon was associated with the emperor and the heavenly realm, while the phoenix represented the empress and the earthly realm
• Qilins, mythical creatures with the body of a deer, the tail of an ox, and a single horn, symbolized good omens and wise leadership
• Cranes and tortoises were associated with longevity and immortality, often depicted in tomb art and decorative objects
• Directional animals, such as the Azure Dragon of the East, the White Tiger of the West, the Vermilion Bird of the South, and the Black Tortoise of the North, represented the cardinal directions and the cosmic order
• Yin and yang symbolism, represented by the taijitu (yin-yang symbol), reflected the balance and harmony of opposing forces in the universe
• Confucian iconography, such as scenes of filial piety, moral exemplars, and the "Four Arts" (qin, qi, shu, hua), promoted Confucian values and ideals
• Auspicious plants, such as bamboo, pines, and peaches, symbolized longevity, resilience, and immortality
• Numerology and cosmological symbols, such as the Eight Trigrams and the Twelve Ornaments, reflected beliefs in the harmony between heaven, earth, and humans

Legacy and Influence on Later Chinese Art

• Han Dynasty art and culture had a profound and lasting impact on the development of Chinese art in subsequent dynasties
• The emphasis on figural imagery, particularly in tomb art and decorative objects, continued in later periods, such as the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE)
• Han ceramic techniques and styles, such as lead-glazed pottery and high-fired stoneware, laid the foundation for the development of Chinese ceramics in later dynasties
  • The celadon glazes of Yue ware and the sancai (three-color) glazes of the Tang Dynasty can be traced back to Han ceramic traditions
• The use of lacquerware and the techniques of carving, inlay, and painting on lacquer surfaces continued to evolve in later periods
• Han stone carving and relief sculpture influenced the development of Buddhist art in China, particularly during the Northern and Southern Dynasties period (420-589 CE)
• The Silk Roads, established during the Han Dynasty, continued to serve as a major conduit for trade, cultural exchange, and the spread of ideas and artistic styles in later periods
• The Confucian values and iconography promoted in Han art became deeply ingrained in Chinese culture and continued to shape artistic expression in subsequent dynasties
• The Han Dynasty's artistic achievements and cultural influence served as a source of inspiration and a model for later Chinese dynasties, such as the Tang, Song (960-1279 CE), and Ming (1368-1644 CE) dynasties

Notable Artifacts and Archaeological Discoveries

• Terracotta Army of Emperor Qin Shi Huang, discovered in 1974 near Xi'an, Shaanxi Province
  • Over 8,000 life-sized terracotta warriors, horses, and chariots arranged in battle formation
  • Showcases the remarkable craftsmanship and attention to detail in Han Dynasty sculpture
• Mawangdui Tombs, discovered in 1972 in Changsha, Hunan Province
  • Three well-preserved tombs of the Marquis of Dai, his wife, and his son, dating back to the early Western Han period
  • Yielded a wealth of artifacts, including silk manuscripts, lacquerware, and the famous Mawangdui silk banner, depicting the journey of the soul in the afterlife
• Mancheng Han Tombs, discovered in 1968 in Mancheng County, Hebei Province
  • Tombs of Prince Liu Sheng and his wife, Dou Wan, from the early Western Han period
  • Contained a large number of exquisite gold, silver, and jade objects, as well as a remarkable set of nested lacquer coffins
• Houmuwu Ding, the largest known bronze cauldron from ancient China, dating back to the late Eastern Han period
  • Measures 133 cm in height and weighs over 800 kg
  • Decorated with intricate patterns and inscriptions, showcasing the advanced bronze casting techniques of the Han Dynasty
• Hunan Provincial Museum's collection of Han Dynasty artifacts, including the famous "Flying Horse of Gansu" bronze sculpture
  • The flying horse, with one hoof resting on a swallow, captures the dynamism and grace of the horses imported from Central Asia during the Han Dynasty
• Silk Road artifacts, such as the Tarim Basin mummies and the Silk Road textiles, provide evidence of the cultural exchange and trade between China and other civilizations during the Han Dynasty