Developmental Psychology Unit 17 Review: Physical & Cognitive Changes

Key Concepts

• Late adulthood refers to the period of life from age 65 until death
• Characterized by both physical and cognitive changes that affect daily functioning and quality of life
• Theories of aging attempt to explain the biological, psychological, and social factors that contribute to the aging process
• Health challenges become more prevalent due to chronic conditions (arthritis, diabetes, heart disease) and age-related declines in physical and cognitive functioning
• Brain changes involve structural and functional alterations that impact memory, processing speed, and executive functioning
• Lifestyle factors (diet, exercise, social engagement) can influence the trajectory of aging and mitigate some age-related declines
• Social and emotional impacts of aging include changes in relationships, roles, and sense of purpose as well as increased risk for social isolation and depression

Physical Changes

• Sensory changes involve declines in vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch sensitivity
  • Visual acuity decreases due to changes in the lens and retina (presbyopia, cataracts, macular degeneration)
  • Hearing loss (presbycusis) affects the ability to perceive high-frequency sounds and understand speech in noisy environments
• Musculoskeletal changes include loss of muscle mass and strength (sarcopenia), decreased bone density (osteoporosis), and reduced flexibility and mobility
• Cardiovascular changes involve stiffening of arteries (atherosclerosis), reduced heart function, and increased risk for hypertension and heart disease
• Respiratory changes include decreased lung capacity, reduced oxygen uptake, and increased susceptibility to respiratory infections (pneumonia)
• Immune system becomes less effective at fighting infections and distinguishing between normal and abnormal cells, increasing risk for autoimmune disorders and cancer
• Skin changes involve thinning, loss of elasticity, and increased susceptibility to bruising and skin tears
• Hormonal changes in women (menopause) and men (andropause) affect reproductive functioning, bone density, and muscle mass

Cognitive Changes

• Processing speed slows down, affecting reaction time and the ability to perform complex tasks quickly
• Attention and concentration may decline, particularly in situations requiring divided attention or task switching
• Working memory, the ability to hold and manipulate information in mind, becomes less efficient
• Long-term memory remains relatively stable, but retrieval of stored information may take longer
  • Semantic memory (general knowledge) is typically well-preserved
  • Episodic memory (personal experiences) may show some decline, particularly for recent events
• Executive functions, such as planning, decision-making, and problem-solving, may become more challenging
• Language abilities generally remain intact, although word-finding difficulties (tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon) may increase
• Wisdom and expertise in specific domains can continue to develop and compensate for some age-related cognitive declines

Health Challenges

• Chronic conditions become more common, requiring ongoing management and treatment
  • Arthritis causes joint pain, stiffness, and reduced mobility
  • Diabetes affects blood sugar regulation and increases risk for complications (neuropathy, kidney disease, vision problems)
  • Heart disease, including coronary artery disease and congestive heart failure, can lead to reduced physical functioning and increased mortality risk
• Sensory impairments, such as vision and hearing loss, can impact daily functioning and social engagement
• Urinary incontinence affects bladder control and can lead to social embarrassment and isolation
• Sleep disturbances, including insomnia and sleep apnea, can affect cognitive functioning and quality of life
• Polypharmacy, the use of multiple medications, increases risk for adverse drug interactions and side effects
• Frailty, a state of increased vulnerability to stressors, can lead to functional declines and increased risk for falls and hospitalizations

Theories of Aging

• Biological theories focus on the cellular and molecular mechanisms that contribute to age-related changes
  • Free radical theory proposes that accumulated damage from reactive oxygen species leads to cellular dysfunction and aging
  • Telomere theory suggests that shortening of protective DNA sequences (telomeres) with each cell division limits cell lifespan and contributes to aging
• Psychosocial theories emphasize the role of psychological and social factors in the aging process
  • Erikson's stage theory proposes that the key developmental task of late adulthood is achieving ego integrity versus despair
  • Socioemotional selectivity theory suggests that older adults prioritize emotionally meaningful goals and relationships as time horizons shorten
• Life course perspective considers the cumulative impact of life experiences, social roles, and historical context on the aging process
• Successful aging models emphasize the importance of maintaining physical, cognitive, and social functioning and adapting to age-related changes

Brain Changes

• Brain volume and weight decrease, particularly in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus
  • Prefrontal cortex is involved in executive functions, such as planning and decision-making
  • Hippocampus plays a critical role in memory formation and consolidation
• White matter integrity declines, affecting the efficiency of neural communication between brain regions
• Neurotransmitter levels and receptor density change, impacting cognitive and emotional functioning
  • Dopamine levels decrease, affecting motor control, reward processing, and executive functions
  • Serotonin levels decline, potentially contributing to increased risk for depression
• Amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease, may accumulate in some individuals
• Neuroplasticity, the brain's ability to reorganize and adapt, continues throughout life but may become less efficient with age
• Cognitive reserve, the brain's resilience to damage, can be enhanced through education, mentally stimulating activities, and social engagement

Lifestyle Factors

• Physical activity and exercise can help maintain muscle strength, balance, and cardiovascular health
  • Regular aerobic exercise (walking, swimming) improves heart and lung function and reduces risk for chronic diseases
  • Resistance training helps preserve muscle mass and bone density, reducing risk for falls and fractures
• Nutrition plays a critical role in maintaining physical and cognitive health
  • Diets rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and lean proteins support brain function and reduce inflammation
  • Adequate hydration is essential for maintaining physical and cognitive performance
• Social engagement and participation in meaningful activities can promote cognitive stimulation and emotional well-being
  • Volunteering, hobbies, and learning new skills provide a sense of purpose and social connection
  • Strong social networks and support systems buffer against stress and reduce risk for depression and cognitive decline
• Stress management techniques, such as relaxation training and mindfulness meditation, can help cope with age-related challenges and improve overall well-being
• Sleep hygiene practices, such as maintaining a consistent sleep schedule and creating a conducive sleep environment, can improve sleep quality and daytime functioning

Social and Emotional Impacts

• Retirement marks a significant transition in roles and daily routines, requiring adjustment and redefinition of identity
  • Successful adaptation involves finding new sources of meaning and purpose, such as hobbies, volunteering, or family caregiving
  • Financial planning and management become critical for maintaining independence and quality of life
• Changes in family structure and relationships occur as adult children assume caregiving roles and grandchildren enter the family system
  • Intergenerational relationships provide opportunities for emotional closeness and support but can also involve challenges related to changing roles and expectations
• Widowhood and loss of loved ones become more common, leading to grief and potential social isolation
  • Adapting to life without a long-term partner requires emotional and practical adjustments
  • Maintaining social connections and seeking support from family, friends, and community resources can help cope with loss
• Ageism and negative stereotypes about aging can affect self-perceptions and limit opportunities for social engagement and personal growth
• Wisdom, the ability to apply knowledge and life experience to navigate complex situations, can continue to develop and contribute to emotional resilience and well-being
• Life review and reminiscence, the process of reflecting on one's life experiences, can promote a sense of meaning and coherence in late adulthood