1.1 Historical development of the U.S. Congress
4 min read•july 30, 2024
The has evolved significantly since its establishment in 1789. From changes in election methods to the development of complex committee systems, Congress has adapted to meet the nation's changing needs and challenges over time.
Key events like the and 20th-century reforms have shaped Congress's role in American politics. The expansion of federal power, rise of , and external influences continue to impact how Congress functions and interacts with other branches of government.
Evolution of Congress
Establishment and Structure
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- The U.S. Congress was established by of the , which created a consisting of the and the
- Initially, senators were elected by state legislatures, while representatives were directly elected by the people
- The , ratified in 1913, provided for the direct election of senators
- The number of representatives in the House is proportional to each state's population, while the Senate has equal representation with two senators per state
- The fixed the number of representatives at 435, which remains the current number today
Organizational Developments
- Over time, Congress has evolved to include various committees, subcommittees, and leadership positions to facilitate the legislative process and provide oversight
- The allows for specialization and division of labor among members of Congress
- have jurisdiction over specific policy areas (agriculture, education, etc.)
- are formed to investigate specific issues or events (Watergate, 9/11, etc.)
- Leadership positions, such as and , help coordinate the legislative agenda and manage the proceedings of each chamber
- Party leadership also plays a significant role in shaping the priorities and strategies of each caucus
Key Events in Congressional Development
Foundational Legislation and Compromises
- The (1789-1791) established many of the basic procedures and structures that still govern Congress today, such as the committee system and the rules of debate
- The Missouri Compromise of 1820 maintained the balance between free and slave states in the Senate, highlighting the role of Congress in managing sectional tensions
- The compromise admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, preserving the delicate balance in the Senate
- The of 1883 aimed to reduce patronage and create a merit-based system for federal employment, affecting the role of Congress in appointing government officials
- The act established the to oversee competitive exams for federal jobs
20th Century Reforms and Resolutions
- The established the executive budget process and the (now the Office of Management and Budget), enhancing Congress's role in fiscal policy
- The act required the president to submit an annual budget proposal to Congress for approval
- The streamlined the committee system, increased staff support, and strengthened congressional oversight of the executive branch
- The act reduced the number of standing committees and clarified their jurisdictions
- It also authorized the hiring of professional staff to assist committees in their work
- The sought to limit the president's ability to commit U.S. forces to armed conflict without congressional approval, asserting Congress's role in foreign policy and military action
- The resolution requires the president to consult with Congress and seek authorization for prolonged military engagements
Historical Influences on Congress
Expansion of Federal Government and Oversight
- The expansion of the federal government's role during the and beyond led to the growth of congressional staff, the development of specialized committees, and increased oversight responsibilities for Congress
- New Deal programs (, , etc.) required more congressional oversight and legislation
- The growth of the federal bureaucracy necessitated more specialized committees and staff expertise to effectively oversee executive agencies
Political Parties and Polarization
- The rise of political parties and their influence on congressional organization and voting patterns has shaped the power dynamics within Congress and its relationship with the executive branch
- Party loyalty often trumps institutional loyalty, leading to more partisan voting and less bipartisan cooperation
- and partisanship have increased in recent decades, affecting the ability of Congress to find consensus and pass legislation, as well as its public approval ratings
- Ideological differences between the parties have widened, making compromise more difficult
- Divided government, with different parties controlling the presidency and one or both chambers of Congress, has become more common
External Influences and Power Dynamics
- The advent of , particularly , has changed the way Congress communicates with the public and has influenced the behavior and strategies of individual members
- Members of Congress often use media appearances to raise their profiles and influence public opinion
- The 24-hour news cycle and social media have accelerated the pace of political communication and increased pressure on Congress to respond quickly to events
- The growing influence of , lobbying, and campaign finance has raised concerns about the impact of money on congressional decision-making and the balance of power between Congress and special interests
- Interest groups and seek to influence legislation through campaign contributions and lobbying efforts
- The cost of congressional campaigns has skyrocketed, making members more dependent on outside funding sources
- Shifts in the balance of power between Congress and the executive branch have occurred throughout history, with periods of congressional assertiveness and periods of executive dominance, affecting the overall functioning of the federal government
- The post-World War II era saw the rise of the "," with the executive branch gaining more power in areas like foreign policy and national security
- The 1970s saw a resurgence of congressional power, with the passage of reforms like the War Powers Resolution and the
Key Terms to Review (32)
17th Amendment: The 17th Amendment to the United States Constitution established the direct election of U.S. Senators by popular vote, which was ratified in 1913. This amendment transformed how Senators were chosen, shifting the power from state legislatures to the electorate, reflecting a broader push for democratic reforms in the political system.
Apportionment Act of 1911: The Apportionment Act of 1911 was a significant piece of legislation that established the method for apportioning seats in the U.S. House of Representatives based on the population counted in the 1910 Census. This act aimed to reflect changes in population distribution across states and ensure fair representation as populations shifted, particularly from rural to urban areas, during this period of American history.
Article I: Article I of the United States Constitution establishes the legislative branch of the federal government, which is responsible for making laws. It sets forth the structure, powers, and limitations of Congress, which is divided into two chambers: the Senate and the House of Representatives. This article not only outlines how members are elected and their terms but also defines the various roles Congress plays in governance and its authority in overseeing federal matters.
Bicameral Legislature: A bicameral legislature is a legislative body that consists of two separate chambers or houses, which work together to create, amend, and pass laws. This structure promotes a system of checks and balances within the legislative process, ensuring that both houses must agree on legislation before it can be enacted. In the context of U.S. governance, the bicameral nature of Congress allows for diverse representation and a more deliberative approach to lawmaking.
Budget and Accounting Act of 1921: The Budget and Accounting Act of 1921 was a significant piece of legislation that established a formal process for the federal budgeting system in the United States. This act aimed to improve the efficiency and accountability of government finances by creating a centralized budget system and establishing the General Accounting Office (GAO) to oversee federal expenditures. It marked a pivotal moment in the historical development of Congress, as it strengthened legislative control over federal spending and introduced systematic budget preparation.
Budget and Impoundment Control Act: The Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 is a significant piece of legislation that established a framework for the federal budget process in the United States. It aimed to enhance congressional control over budgetary decisions and reduce the President's ability to unilaterally withhold or impound funds appropriated by Congress. This act represented a crucial shift in the balance of power between the executive and legislative branches regarding fiscal policy and budgeting.
Bureau of the Budget: The Bureau of the Budget (BOB) was established in 1921 to assist the President of the United States in preparing the federal budget and ensuring its implementation. It plays a critical role in shaping fiscal policy and managing the allocation of government resources, which directly influences congressional appropriations and priorities. The BOB was reorganized into the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) in 1970, further expanding its functions beyond just budget preparation.
Civil Service Commission: The Civil Service Commission is a government agency established to oversee the recruitment, selection, and promotion of civil servants in a fair and impartial manner. It plays a crucial role in ensuring that government jobs are filled based on merit rather than political connections, thereby promoting professionalism within the federal workforce. The Commission's establishment was part of broader reforms aimed at curbing corruption and inefficiency in government operations.
Committee system: The committee system is a crucial organizational structure in Congress that divides its workload among smaller groups, known as committees, to handle specific areas of legislation and oversight. This system allows Congress to efficiently manage the vast array of bills and issues that arise, with committees conducting hearings, reviewing legislation, and making recommendations to the larger legislative body. Over time, this system has evolved, reflecting the changing needs and complexities of governance.
Constitution: A constitution is a foundational legal document that outlines the fundamental principles and established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed. It serves as the supreme law of the land, detailing the structure of government, the rights of the citizens, and the processes by which laws are made and enforced. In the context of U.S. history, the Constitution has shaped the development of Congress and defined its powers and responsibilities.
First Congress: The First Congress refers to the first meeting of the United States Congress, which convened in 1789 and lasted until 1791. This inaugural session marked the establishment of a functioning legislative body under the new U.S. Constitution, setting important precedents for the operation of Congress and the federal government as a whole. The First Congress played a crucial role in shaping foundational laws and policies, including the Bill of Rights, which laid the groundwork for American governance.
House of Representatives: The House of Representatives is one of the two chambers of the United States Congress, consisting of representatives elected to serve two-year terms, with the number of representatives from each state based on its population. It plays a crucial role in federal legislation, representing the interests of the citizens, and balancing the power of the Senate, which is the other chamber. This structure was designed to ensure that all voices are heard in the legislative process and is a fundamental aspect of American democracy.
Imperial Presidency: The term 'imperial presidency' refers to a concept where the president of the United States exerts significant authority and power, often surpassing the intended constitutional limits set by the framers. This idea highlights a shift from the original design of a limited executive branch to one that may dominate foreign and domestic policy, often at the expense of Congress's legislative powers. This development reflects a broader trend in American governance, where the executive branch has increasingly claimed more authority through various means.
Interest Groups: Interest groups are organized groups of individuals or organizations that seek to influence public policy and decision-making in favor of their specific interests or causes. These groups play a vital role in the political process by representing diverse perspectives and mobilizing resources to advocate for their objectives, often engaging in lobbying, public campaigns, and research efforts.
Legislative Reorganization Act of 1946: The Legislative Reorganization Act of 1946 was a significant piece of legislation aimed at improving the efficiency and effectiveness of the U.S. Congress by restructuring its operations. This act addressed several issues that had arisen during World War II, such as the need for better organization and the streamlining of congressional procedures, reflecting a shift towards a more modern legislative process in response to increased government demands.
Mass media: Mass media refers to the various means of communication that reach large audiences, including newspapers, television, radio, and digital platforms. This form of communication plays a crucial role in shaping public opinion, influencing political discourse, and providing information about governmental activities, especially in the context of the U.S. Congress and its historical development.
Missouri Compromise: The Missouri Compromise was a significant legislative agreement reached in 1820 that aimed to balance the power between slave and free states in the United States. It admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, maintaining the numerical balance in Congress, while also establishing a boundary at the latitude of 36°30′ north for future states, allowing slavery in territories south of this line and prohibiting it in territories to the north. This compromise highlighted the growing sectional tensions over slavery and set the stage for future conflicts.
New Deal Era: The New Deal Era refers to a period in American history during the 1930s when President Franklin D. Roosevelt implemented a series of federal programs and reforms in response to the Great Depression. This era is marked by significant changes in the role of the federal government, increased government intervention in the economy, and the establishment of social welfare programs aimed at providing relief, recovery, and reform.
Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act: The Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act, enacted in 1883, aimed to eliminate the patronage system in federal employment by establishing a merit-based system for hiring and promoting government employees. This act marked a significant shift in how the U.S. government operated, as it sought to reduce corruption and improve efficiency within the federal workforce.
Polarization: Polarization refers to the increasing ideological division and emotional distance between political parties or groups, leading to a lack of compromise and heightened partisanship. This growing divide has reshaped the political landscape, affecting legislative processes and party dynamics throughout the historical development of the U.S. Congress. As polarization intensifies, it influences voter behavior and election outcomes, contributing to incumbency advantages and shifting electoral trends.
Political Action Committees (PACs): Political Action Committees, or PACs, are organizations that collect and distribute contributions to political candidates and parties, enabling individuals and groups to influence the political process. They play a significant role in campaign financing, allowing various interests, from corporations to labor unions, to support candidates who align with their goals. The establishment of PACs has evolved over time alongside changes in election laws and the broader political landscape in the U.S.
Political Parties: Political parties are organized groups of individuals who share common beliefs and goals and seek to influence government policy and decision-making through electoral competition. They play a crucial role in structuring political debate, organizing elections, and mobilizing voters, which has significantly shaped the political landscape and governance in the United States throughout its history.
Select Committees: Select committees are specialized groups formed by either the House of Representatives or the Senate to focus on specific issues, conducting investigations and studies that fall outside the scope of standing committees. These temporary committees can be established for a variety of purposes, such as investigating particular events, examining issues of national importance, or overseeing specific government functions. The work of select committees can significantly influence legislation and policy decisions in Congress.
Senate: The Senate is one of the two chambers of the United States Congress, composed of 100 senators, two from each state, serving staggered six-year terms. This body was designed to provide equal representation for each state, regardless of population size, balancing the interests of states with larger and smaller populations. The Senate also plays a crucial role in the legislative process, as well as in confirming presidential appointments and ratifying treaties.
Senate Majority Leader: The Senate Majority Leader is the head of the majority party in the U.S. Senate and plays a crucial role in setting the legislative agenda, guiding party strategy, and managing the flow of legislation. This position has evolved over time, reflecting changes in the structure and function of Congress, as well as the political landscape, making it integral to understanding legislative processes, party dynamics, and leadership responsibilities within the Senate.
Social Security: Social Security is a federal program in the United States that provides financial assistance to individuals who are retired, disabled, or survivors of deceased workers. Established in 1935 during the Great Depression, it has evolved into a vital safety net, aiming to reduce poverty and ensure income security for millions of Americans. The program is funded through payroll taxes and plays a significant role in shaping economic policies and legislative priorities within Congress.
Speaker of the House: The Speaker of the House is the presiding officer of the United States House of Representatives, responsible for maintaining order, guiding legislation, and representing the House to the President and the Senate. This position is crucial in shaping congressional priorities and facilitating party leadership dynamics, making it a key role in the functioning of Congress.
Standing Committees: Standing committees are permanent committees in Congress that focus on specific areas of legislation, such as finance, education, or foreign affairs. They play a crucial role in the legislative process by reviewing bills, conducting hearings, and making recommendations to the larger body. Over time, these committees have evolved in their structure and function, reflecting the changing needs of Congress and the American public.
Television: Television is a mass communication medium that uses electronic signals to transmit moving images and sound, revolutionizing the way information and entertainment are consumed. It has played a crucial role in shaping public opinion, influencing political discourse, and informing citizens about current events, particularly in the context of governmental institutions like Congress.
U.S. Congress: The U.S. Congress is the legislative branch of the federal government, consisting of two houses: the Senate and the House of Representatives. It plays a crucial role in creating laws, overseeing the executive branch, and representing the interests of the American people. The development of Congress has evolved over time, reflecting changes in political, social, and economic landscapes throughout American history.
Unemployment insurance: Unemployment insurance is a government program that provides financial assistance to individuals who have lost their jobs through no fault of their own, helping them during their transition back into employment. This program is crucial in supporting the workforce during economic downturns and has evolved significantly since its inception, reflecting changes in labor markets and social policy.
War Powers Resolution of 1973: The War Powers Resolution of 1973 is a federal law aimed at limiting the U.S. president's ability to engage in military actions without congressional approval. This law was enacted in response to the Vietnam War and seeks to enhance congressional oversight over decisions to deploy armed forces, ensuring that the legislative branch retains its constitutional power to declare war.