37.3 Regulation of Body Processes
4 min read•june 14, 2024
Hormones are the body's chemical messengers, regulating everything from metabolism to reproduction. They work through complex feedback systems to maintain , the body's internal balance. Understanding how hormones function is crucial for grasping how our bodies respond to changes and maintain stability.
Hormonal imbalances can lead to various disorders, affecting metabolism, growth, and overall health. By exploring the roles of specific hormones and their effects on different body systems, we can better appreciate the intricate workings of the and its impact on our daily lives.
Hormonal Regulation of Body Processes
Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms
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- Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment in the body
- : A mechanism that opposes changes to maintain stability (e.g., thermoregulation)
- : A mechanism that amplifies changes, often used in processes with a clear endpoint (e.g., childbirth contractions)
Hormonal influence on kidney function
- or
- Released by the when blood osmolarity increases or blood volume decreases
- Acts on the collecting ducts in the kidneys to increase water reabsorption, reducing urine output and conserving water in the body
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- Secreted by the when blood pressure decreases or blood potassium levels increase
- Increases sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion in the distal tubules and collecting ducts of the kidneys
- Promotes water retention which increases blood volume and pressure (blood pressure regulation)
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- Released by the atria of the heart when blood volume or pressure increases
- Inhibits sodium reabsorption in the collecting ducts, promoting sodium excretion in urine and reducing blood volume and pressure (counteracts effects of )
Hormones in reproductive processes
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- Secreted by the
- Stimulates the to release and which regulate reproductive functions
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- In females, stimulates the development of and production (supports egg maturation)
- In males, promotes spermatogenesis in the testes (supports sperm production)
- Luteinizing hormone (LH)
- In females, triggers ovulation and the formation of the , which produces (prepares uterus for pregnancy)
- In males, stimulates production by in the testes (supports male characteristics and fertility)
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- Promotes the development of female secondary sexual characteristics during puberty (breast development, fat distribution)
- Regulates the menstrual cycle and prepares the uterus for implantation of a fertilized egg
- Progesterone
- Maintains the uterine lining during pregnancy to support embryo development
- Inhibits further ovulation during pregnancy to prevent multiple fertilizations
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- Promotes the development of male secondary sexual characteristics during puberty (muscle growth, deepening of voice)
- Maintains libido and supports spermatogenesis for male fertility
Key hormones of metabolism regulation
- ( and )
- Secreted by the thyroid gland in response to from the anterior pituitary
- Increase basal metabolic rate, stimulate protein synthesis, and promote growth and development (regulate overall metabolism)
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- Secreted by the when blood glucose levels increase (after a meal)
- Promotes glucose uptake by cells, stimulates glycogen synthesis, and inhibits (lowers blood sugar)
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- Secreted by the when blood glucose levels decrease (between meals or during fasting)
- Stimulates the breakdown of glycogen to glucose () and promotes (raises blood sugar)
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- Produced by
- Signals the to reduce appetite and increase energy expenditure when body fat stores are sufficient (regulates long-term energy balance)
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- Secreted by the stomach
- Stimulates hunger and increases appetite, promoting food intake (short-term energy balance regulation)
Hormonal imbalances vs endocrine disorders
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- Caused by insufficient thyroid hormone production
- Symptoms include weight gain, fatigue, cold intolerance, and dry skin (slowed metabolism)
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- Caused by excessive thyroid hormone production
- Symptoms include weight loss, heat intolerance, rapid heartbeat, and anxiety (overactive metabolism)
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- Caused by autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells, leading to deficiency
- Results in and requires exogenous insulin treatment to regulate blood sugar
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- Characterized by insulin resistance and/or reduced insulin production
- Often associated with obesity and can be managed with lifestyle changes (diet and exercise), medication, or insulin therapy
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- Caused by excessive cortisol production, often due to a pituitary tumor or long-term glucocorticoid therapy
- Symptoms include weight gain, moon face, easy bruising, and muscle weakness (cortisol affects metabolism and tissue integrity)
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- Caused by insufficient cortisol and aldosterone production due to adrenal gland dysfunction
- Symptoms include fatigue, weight loss, hypotension, and skin hyperpigmentation (lack of cortisol and aldosterone affects metabolism and electrolyte balance)
The Endocrine System and Hormone Action
- The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream
- Hormones act on target cells that have specific
- The is a key regulatory system in endocrine function, controlling many other endocrine glands
Key Terms to Review (74)
Acromegaly: Acromegaly is a hormonal disorder that develops when the pituitary gland produces too much growth hormone during adulthood. This excess hormone causes bones and tissues to grow larger than normal, particularly in the hands, feet, and face.
Addison’s disease: Addison's disease is a disorder where the adrenal glands do not produce enough hormones, particularly cortisol and aldosterone. It can lead to symptoms such as fatigue, muscle weakness, and low blood pressure.
Addison's disease: Addison's disease is a rare endocrine disorder that occurs when the adrenal glands do not produce enough hormones, particularly cortisol and aldosterone. This condition affects various body processes, including metabolism, immune response, and fluid balance, due to insufficient hormone levels leading to disruptions in the regulation of critical bodily functions.
Adipose tissue: Adipose tissue is a type of connective tissue primarily responsible for storing energy in the form of fat, providing insulation and cushioning for organs. This tissue plays a crucial role in metabolism and energy balance, as it interacts closely with various hormones and body processes to regulate energy homeostasis and thermoregulation.
Adrenal cortex: The adrenal cortex is the outer region of the adrenal glands, which are located on top of each kidney. This part of the gland is responsible for producing several essential hormones, including corticosteroids, which play crucial roles in regulating metabolism, immune response, and stress. The adrenal cortex is vital for maintaining homeostasis in the body, influencing various bodily processes through its hormone secretion.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) is a peptide hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland. It stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol and other glucocorticoids, which are crucial for stress response and metabolism regulation.
Aldosterone: Aldosterone is a steroid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex. It plays a crucial role in regulating sodium and potassium levels in the blood, thereby controlling blood pressure and fluid balance.
Aldosterone: Aldosterone is a steroid hormone produced by the adrenal glands that plays a key role in regulating sodium and potassium levels in the body. It influences blood pressure and fluid balance by promoting sodium reabsorption in the kidneys, which helps control blood volume and pressure.
Anterior pituitary: The anterior pituitary, also known as the adenohypophysis, is a gland located at the base of the brain that produces and secretes various hormones essential for regulating several body processes. This gland plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis by controlling functions such as growth, metabolism, and reproductive processes through the release of hormones into the bloodstream.
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), also known as vasopressin, is a peptide hormone produced by the hypothalamus and released from the posterior pituitary gland that plays a crucial role in regulating water balance in the body. By promoting water reabsorption in the kidneys, ADH helps maintain proper osmotic balance and blood pressure, making it essential for homeostasis and overall bodily function.
Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP): Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) is a hormone produced by the heart's atria that plays a crucial role in regulating blood pressure and fluid balance. It is released in response to increased blood volume or pressure, promoting sodium excretion in the kidneys and leading to reduced blood volume and lower blood pressure. ANP is essential for maintaining homeostasis within the cardiovascular system, acting as a counter-regulatory mechanism to the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system.
Calcitonin: Calcitonin is a hormone produced by the thyroid gland that helps regulate blood calcium levels. It lowers blood calcium by inhibiting osteoclast activity and promoting calcium excretion in the kidneys.
Corpus luteum: The corpus luteum is a temporary endocrine structure formed in the ovaries after ovulation, primarily responsible for producing progesterone and estrogen to support early pregnancy. This structure plays a crucial role in regulating reproductive hormones and maintaining the uterine lining, making it vital for both the menstrual cycle and pregnancy.
Cushing’s disease: Cushing's disease is a condition caused by an excess of cortisol due to a pituitary adenoma producing too much adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). This hormonal imbalance affects various body processes, leading to significant clinical symptoms.
Cushing's syndrome: Cushing's syndrome is a hormonal disorder caused by prolonged exposure to high levels of cortisol, a steroid hormone produced by the adrenal glands. This condition can lead to various symptoms including weight gain, hypertension, and changes in skin appearance, affecting multiple body processes and highlighting the importance of hormone regulation in maintaining health.
Diabetogenic effect: The diabetogenic effect refers to the tendency of certain hormones, particularly those from the endocrine system, to increase blood glucose levels. This effect is often observed during pregnancy or in response to stress and certain hormone therapies.
Endocrine system: The endocrine system is a network of glands that produce and secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate various body functions. This system plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis, controlling metabolism, growth, reproduction, and responding to stress, thereby influencing nearly every aspect of our biology.
Estrogen: Estrogen is a primary female sex hormone responsible for the regulation of the reproductive system and secondary sexual characteristics. It plays a crucial role in the menstrual cycle and pregnancy.
Estrogen: Estrogen is a group of hormones that play a crucial role in the development and regulation of the female reproductive system and secondary sexual characteristics. These hormones are not only important for reproduction but also influence various body processes, including metabolism and bone density.
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is a glycoprotein hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. It plays a crucial role in regulating the reproductive processes of the body, including the development of ovarian follicles in females and spermatogenesis in males.
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is a glycoprotein hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that plays a crucial role in regulating reproductive processes. It stimulates the growth and maturation of ovarian follicles in females and promotes spermatogenesis in males, making it essential for normal reproductive function and fertility.
Ghrelin: Ghrelin is a peptide hormone produced mainly in the stomach that stimulates appetite and plays a significant role in energy balance. It is often referred to as the 'hunger hormone' because it signals the brain to induce feelings of hunger and promotes food intake. Ghrelin also has other functions, including influencing the release of growth hormone and regulating glucose metabolism.
Glucagon: Glucagon is a peptide hormone produced by the alpha cells of the pancreas that plays a critical role in maintaining blood glucose levels. It works primarily by promoting the conversion of stored glycogen in the liver into glucose, releasing it into the bloodstream when blood sugar levels are low, and also influences the metabolism of proteins and lipids, contributing to overall energy homeostasis.
Gluconeogenesis: Gluconeogenesis is the metabolic process through which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate substrates, primarily in the liver. It plays a critical role in maintaining blood sugar levels during fasting or intense exercise.
Gluconeogenesis: Gluconeogenesis is the metabolic process by which organisms synthesize glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors, primarily occurring in the liver and to a lesser extent in the kidneys. This pathway is crucial for maintaining blood glucose levels during fasting or intense exercise, ensuring that vital organs, especially the brain, have a continuous supply of glucose as an energy source.
Glycogenolysis: Glycogenolysis is the biochemical process by which glycogen, the stored form of glucose in the body, is broken down into glucose-1-phosphate and glucose. This process is essential for maintaining blood glucose levels during fasting or intense exercise and connects carbohydrate metabolism with energy production, as well as integrating with protein and lipid metabolic pathways.
Goiter: A goiter is an abnormal enlargement of the thyroid gland. It can result from various conditions, including iodine deficiency and hyperthyroidism.
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH): Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is a key hormone produced in the hypothalamus that stimulates the release of gonadotropins, which are hormones that play crucial roles in regulating reproductive processes. By acting on the anterior pituitary gland, GnRH triggers the secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), both essential for sexual development, reproductive function, and overall body regulation.
Gonadotropins: Gonadotropins are hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland that stimulate the activity of the gonads (ovaries and testes). The primary gonadotropins are luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).
Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH): Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH), also known as somatostatin, is a peptide hormone that inhibits the secretion of growth hormone (GH). It is produced by the hypothalamus and other tissues such as the pancreas and gastrointestinal tract.
Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH): Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) is a peptide hormone produced in the hypothalamus that stimulates the release of growth hormone (GH) from the anterior pituitary gland. It plays a significant role in growth, metabolism, and overall endocrine regulation.
Homeostasis: Homeostasis is the process by which biological systems maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes. This dynamic equilibrium is essential for the survival of organisms, as it regulates factors like temperature, pH, and the concentration of ions and nutrients. It connects to various aspects of biology, including how organisms interact with their environment and the physiological processes that sustain life.
Hormone receptors: Hormone receptors are specialized proteins located on the surface of target cells or within the cells themselves, which bind to specific hormones to initiate a physiological response. These receptors are essential for mediating the effects of hormones, enabling them to regulate various body processes, including growth, metabolism, and reproduction.
Hyperglycemia: Hyperglycemia is a condition characterized by an abnormally high level of glucose in the blood. It is commonly associated with diabetes mellitus and can lead to serious health complications if not managed properly.
Hyperglycemia: Hyperglycemia is a condition characterized by an excessive level of glucose in the bloodstream, usually defined as a blood sugar level exceeding 180 mg/dL after meals or 130 mg/dL when fasting. This condition often indicates a problem with insulin production or action, which plays a crucial role in regulating blood sugar levels. When hyperglycemia occurs, it can lead to serious health complications if not managed properly, highlighting the importance of effective metabolic regulation and homeostasis in maintaining overall health.
Hyperthyroidism: Hyperthyroidism is a condition characterized by the overproduction of thyroid hormones by the thyroid gland, leading to an accelerated metabolism and a range of symptoms that can affect various body systems. This excessive hormone production can disrupt normal body processes, resulting in increased heart rate, weight loss, and heightened energy levels. Understanding this condition is essential as it highlights the intricate relationship between hormonal regulation and the body’s overall functionality.
Hypoglycemia: Hypoglycemia is a condition characterized by abnormally low levels of blood glucose (sugar). It is commonly associated with diabetes treatment but can occur in other situations affecting glucose regulation.
Hypothalamic-pituitary axis: The hypothalamic-pituitary axis is a complex set of interactions between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland that plays a critical role in regulating various body processes and hormone production. This axis functions as the main communication pathway in the endocrine system, where the hypothalamus releases hormones that control the secretion of hormones from the pituitary gland, influencing bodily functions such as stress response, growth, metabolism, and reproduction.
Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus is a small but crucial part of the brain located below the thalamus. It plays a key role in regulating various autonomic processes and linking the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.
Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus is a small region of the brain located below the thalamus that plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis by regulating various physiological processes. It connects the nervous system to the endocrine system, influencing hormone release and controlling body temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep cycles, and emotional responses.
Hypothyroidism: Hypothyroidism is a medical condition characterized by an underactive thyroid gland, resulting in insufficient production of thyroid hormones. This deficiency can disrupt the regulation of various body processes, including metabolism, energy levels, and temperature control, leading to a range of physical and mental health issues. Hormones produced by the thyroid play a critical role in maintaining homeostasis, so when their levels are low, it can significantly affect overall bodily function.
Insulin: Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas that regulates blood glucose levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into cells. It plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis within the body.
Insulin: Insulin is a peptide hormone produced by the pancreas that regulates glucose levels in the blood and facilitates cellular uptake of glucose. It plays a vital role in maintaining energy balance by promoting the storage of glucose as glycogen and inhibiting the production of glucose by the liver, which connects it to various metabolic and physiological processes in the body.
Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs): Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) are hormones with a similar molecular structure to insulin. They play a crucial role in growth and development, especially during childhood.
Intracellular hormone receptors: Intracellular hormone receptors are protein molecules located inside the cell, typically within the cytoplasm or nucleus. They bind to specific hormones that can cross the cell membrane, initiating a cellular response by directly affecting gene expression.
Leptin: Leptin is a hormone produced by adipose (fat) tissue that plays a crucial role in regulating energy balance, appetite, and metabolism. It communicates with the hypothalamus in the brain to help regulate body weight by signaling feelings of satiety and controlling hunger. This hormone is an essential component of the body’s energy homeostasis, influencing how the body uses and stores energy.
Leydig cells: Leydig cells are specialized cells located in the testes that play a crucial role in the production of testosterone, the primary male sex hormone. These cells are essential for male reproductive health and development, influencing various bodily processes, including the regulation of spermatogenesis and secondary sexual characteristics.
Luteinizing hormone (LH): Luteinizing hormone (LH) is a glycoprotein hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that plays a crucial role in regulating reproductive processes. It stimulates ovulation in females and the production of testosterone in males, which are essential for fertility. LH levels fluctuate throughout the menstrual cycle and are vital for maintaining normal reproductive function.
Mineralocorticoid: Mineralocorticoids are a class of steroid hormones produced by the adrenal cortex that regulate electrolyte and water balance. The primary mineralocorticoid in humans is aldosterone.
Negative feedback: Negative feedback is a regulatory mechanism in biological systems that helps maintain homeostasis by reversing changes from a set point. This process involves detecting deviations from a normal range and initiating responses that counteract those deviations, ensuring stability in various physiological functions.
Negative feedback loop: A negative feedback loop is a biological process where the output of a system suppresses or diminishes its own activity to maintain homeostasis. It helps stabilize internal conditions by counteracting deviations from a set point.
Ovarian follicles: Ovarian follicles are small fluid-filled sacs in the ovaries that contain immature eggs, or oocytes. They play a crucial role in the female reproductive system by supporting the maturation of eggs and producing hormones such as estrogen. Each menstrual cycle involves the growth and selection of ovarian follicles, which is tightly regulated by hormonal signals, influencing ovulation and overall reproductive health.
Pancreatic alpha cells: Pancreatic alpha cells are specialized cells located in the islets of Langerhans within the pancreas, primarily responsible for producing and secreting glucagon, a hormone that plays a vital role in regulating blood glucose levels. These cells function as key players in maintaining homeostasis by increasing blood sugar levels when they drop too low, counterbalancing the action of insulin produced by beta cells.
Pancreatic beta cells: Pancreatic beta cells are specialized cells located in the islets of Langerhans within the pancreas, responsible for producing and secreting insulin, a crucial hormone for regulating blood glucose levels. These cells play a vital role in maintaining energy balance and homeostasis in the body, connecting directly to hormone types and the regulation of various body processes.
Pituitary dwarfism: Pituitary dwarfism is a condition characterized by growth hormone deficiency, resulting in significantly shorter stature. It is caused by insufficient production of growth hormone from the pituitary gland.
Positive feedback: Positive feedback is a biological mechanism that amplifies a response or increases the output of a process, pushing systems away from their starting state. This mechanism often leads to rapid changes and is crucial in specific biological contexts, where it can enhance physiological processes and help maintain or initiate significant biological events.
Positive feedback loop: A positive feedback loop is a physiological process where the output of a system amplifies the original stimulus. This can lead to an exponential increase or runaway effect in biological systems until an external factor intervenes.
Posterior pituitary gland: The posterior pituitary gland, also known as the neurohypophysis, is a part of the pituitary gland located at the base of the brain. It primarily stores and releases two important hormones, oxytocin and vasopressin (also called antidiuretic hormone or ADH), which are synthesized in the hypothalamus. This gland plays a vital role in regulating various physiological processes such as water balance and reproductive functions.
Progesterone: Progesterone is a steroid hormone that plays a crucial role in regulating various bodily processes, particularly in the female reproductive system. It helps prepare the uterus for potential pregnancy after ovulation and is essential for maintaining early stages of pregnancy. This hormone also interacts with other hormones and influences processes such as the menstrual cycle and development of reproductive tissues.
Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH): Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH), also known as dopamine, is a neurohormone that inhibits the secretion of prolactin from the anterior pituitary gland. It plays a crucial role in regulating lactation and reproductive functions.
Prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH): Prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH) is a hypothalamic hormone that stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to release prolactin. Prolactin plays a key role in lactation and other reproductive processes.
Renin: Renin is an enzyme secreted by the kidneys that plays a critical role in the regulation of blood pressure and fluid balance. It initiates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) cascade by converting angiotensinogen into angiotensin I.
T3: T3, or triiodothyronine, is a crucial thyroid hormone that plays a significant role in regulating metabolism, energy production, and overall growth and development in the body. This hormone is derived from thyroxine (T4) through the removal of one iodine atom and has a much stronger biological effect than T4. T3 influences various bodily processes, making it essential for maintaining homeostasis and proper physiological function.
T4: T4, or thyroxine, is a vital hormone produced by the thyroid gland that plays a significant role in regulating metabolism and energy production in the body. It is one of the primary hormones responsible for controlling various physiological processes, such as growth, development, and the overall metabolic rate. Understanding T4 helps connect the dots between hormone types, the regulation of body functions, and how hormone production is controlled.
Testosterone: Testosterone is a steroid hormone primarily produced in the testes in males and in smaller amounts by the ovaries in females. It plays a key role in the development of male reproductive tissues and secondary sexual characteristics.
Testosterone: Testosterone is a steroid hormone produced primarily in the testes in males and in smaller amounts in the ovaries and adrenal glands in females. It plays a critical role in the development of male reproductive tissues, promoting secondary sexual characteristics such as increased muscle and bone mass, and influencing libido. This hormone is also involved in various bodily processes and functions beyond reproduction.
Thyroglobulin: Thyroglobulin is a large glycoprotein produced by follicular cells in the thyroid gland. It acts as a precursor for the production of thyroid hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3).
Thyroid hormones: Thyroid hormones, primarily thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), are critical hormones produced by the thyroid gland that regulate metabolism, growth, and development in the body. They play a vital role in the regulation of various body processes, including energy production, temperature control, and overall metabolic rate, as well as the production of other hormones and bodily functions.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) is a pituitary hormone that regulates the production of hormones by the thyroid gland. It plays a crucial role in maintaining metabolism, energy levels, and overall endocrine function.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) is a glycoprotein hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that regulates the production of hormones by the thyroid gland. TSH plays a crucial role in maintaining metabolic processes in the body by stimulating the thyroid to release thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which are vital for growth, development, and energy regulation.
Type 1 diabetes mellitus: Type 1 diabetes mellitus is a chronic autoimmune condition where the immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas. This results in little to no insulin production, which is crucial for regulating blood glucose levels, thereby affecting various body processes such as metabolism and energy utilization.
Type 2 diabetes mellitus: Type 2 diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency, leading to elevated blood glucose levels. This condition impacts the regulation of body processes, particularly glucose metabolism and energy homeostasis, resulting in various long-term health complications if not managed effectively.
Vasopressin: Vasopressin, also known as antidiuretic hormone (ADH), is a peptide hormone that regulates water balance in the body by increasing water reabsorption in the kidneys. It is produced in the hypothalamus and released from the posterior pituitary gland.
Vasopressin: Vasopressin, also known as antidiuretic hormone (ADH), is a peptide hormone produced by the hypothalamus and released from the posterior pituitary gland. It plays a crucial role in regulating water balance and blood pressure, influencing how the kidneys manage water reabsorption and maintaining osmotic balance within the body.