2.3 Carbon
2 min read•june 14, 2024
is the backbone of life, forming diverse essential for living organisms. Its unique bonding properties allow it to create complex structures like , , and . These molecules are the building blocks of cells and drive biological processes.
and hydrocarbon types give organic molecules their specific properties and roles in organisms. Understanding these structures is key to grasping how biomolecules interact and function within living systems, from replication to enzyme activity.
Carbon and Organic Molecules
Carbon's molecular versatility
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- Carbon has four enabling formation of four
- Forms stable covalent bonds with many elements (C, H, O, N, S, P)
- Carbon forms single, double, or
- share one electron pair
- share two electron pairs
- Triple bonds share three electron pairs
- Carbon forms long chains, branched structures, and ring structures
- Strong stable carbon-carbon bonds
- Enables formation of diverse organic molecules with various shapes and sizes (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids)
- Carbon atoms can undergo , allowing for different bonding geometries
Impact of functional groups
- are specific atom arrangements that impart distinct chemical properties
- Common functional groups in biological molecules
- (-OH) increases water solubility and reactivity (sugars, alcohols)
- (C=O) includes aldehydes and ketones involved in biochemical reactions (, carbohydrates)
- (-COOH) is acidic and found in and
- (-NH2) is basic and found in amino acids and
- (-PO4) is acidic and found in nucleotides and
- (-SH) stabilizes protein structure through disulfide bonds ()
- Functional groups determine molecular chemical behavior
- Influence solubility, reactivity, and molecular interactions (enzyme-substrate binding)
- Functional groups are crucial for specific biological roles of molecules in living organisms (DNA, , )
- Some molecules exhibit , where electrons are delocalized across multiple atoms
Hydrocarbon types in organisms
- are organic molecules composed of only carbon and hydrogen
- Three main hydrocarbon types
- have single bonds between carbon atoms
- General formula
- Examples (methane , ethane , propane )
- Saturated, nonpolar, and hydrophobic
- have one or more double bonds between carbon atoms
- General formula
- Examples (ethene , propene )
- Unsaturated, nonpolar, and hydrophobic
- have one or more triple bonds between carbon atoms
- General formula
- Examples (ethyne , propyne )
- Unsaturated, nonpolar, and hydrophobic
- have single bonds between carbon atoms
- serve as the backbone for many biological molecules
- Lipids are long-chain hydrocarbons with additional functional groups (fatty acids, waxes)
- have four fused hydrocarbon rings with attached functional groups (, hormones)
Structural features of organic molecules
- : Molecules with the same molecular formula but different structural arrangements
- : The property of a molecule that is not superimposable on its mirror image
- : A property of cyclic compounds with delocalized electrons, conferring stability
Key Terms to Review (51)
Alkanes: Alkanes are a class of hydrocarbons that consist only of carbon (C) and hydrogen (H) atoms, with single bonds connecting the carbon atoms. They are saturated compounds, meaning they contain the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible for the number of carbon atoms present. This structure makes alkanes relatively unreactive compared to other hydrocarbons, and they serve as important fuels and starting materials in organic chemistry.
Alkenes: Alkenes are hydrocarbons that contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond (C=C) in their structure. This characteristic gives alkenes unique chemical properties compared to other hydrocarbons, like alkanes, which only have single bonds. Alkenes play a significant role in organic chemistry and are crucial in various chemical reactions, including polymerization, making them important in industrial processes and the production of plastics.
Alkynes: Alkynes are a class of hydrocarbons characterized by at least one carbon-carbon triple bond (C≡C). They are unsaturated compounds, meaning they contain fewer hydrogen atoms than their saturated counterparts, alkanes. This unique bonding structure gives alkynes distinct chemical properties and reactivity, setting them apart from other types of hydrocarbons.
Amino: Amino refers to a functional group characterized by a nitrogen atom attached to one or more hydrogen atoms, typically written as -NH2. This group is fundamental in the formation of amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins. Amino groups play a vital role in various biochemical processes, including protein synthesis and the structure of nucleotides.
Amino acids: Amino acids are organic compounds that serve as the building blocks of proteins. Each amino acid contains an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a unique side chain (R-group).
Amino Acids: Amino acids are organic compounds that serve as the building blocks of proteins, consisting of an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a unique side chain. They play critical roles in various biological processes, including protein synthesis, metabolism, and the regulation of cellular functions.
Aromatic hydrocarbons: Aromatic hydrocarbons are a class of compounds characterized by the presence of one or more benzene rings. They are known for their stability and unique chemical properties due to resonance.
Aromaticity: Aromaticity is a property of cyclic, planar compounds that exhibit resonance stability due to the delocalization of pi electrons. This special arrangement leads to unique chemical behaviors, making aromatic compounds particularly stable and distinct from their non-aromatic counterparts. Aromaticity is a crucial aspect in understanding organic molecules, as it influences reactivity, stability, and the overall chemistry of compounds containing carbon.
Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, typically in a 1:2:1 ratio. They serve as a primary source of energy for living organisms and are essential for various biological processes. Carbohydrates can be classified into simple sugars, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides, each playing unique roles in metabolism, structure, and cell signaling.
Carbon: Carbon is a chemical element with the symbol C and atomic number 6, playing a crucial role as the foundational building block of life. It is unique due to its ability to form stable bonds with many elements, including itself, allowing for the creation of a vast array of organic compounds that are essential for biological processes.
Carbonyl: A carbonyl is a functional group characterized by a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom (C=O). This group plays a critical role in organic chemistry, as it is found in various classes of compounds, including aldehydes, ketones, and carboxylic acids. Carbonyls are key players in many biochemical reactions and contribute to the structure and reactivity of biomolecules.
Carboxyl: A carboxyl group is a functional group characterized by a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom and also bonded to a hydroxyl group (–COOH). This structure not only defines the properties of many organic acids but also plays a vital role in biochemical reactions, as it can donate protons and act as an acid. Carboxyl groups are essential in various biological molecules, influencing their behavior and interaction within living organisms.
Chirality: Chirality refers to the property of a molecule that makes it non-superimposable on its mirror image, similar to how left and right hands are distinct despite being mirror images. This concept is crucial in understanding the structure and behavior of organic compounds, particularly those involving carbon, as it often influences their reactivity and interactions in biological systems. Chirality plays a significant role in the development of pharmaceuticals and other biological molecules.
Cholesterol: Cholesterol is a type of lipid molecule that is crucial for the structure and function of cell membranes and serves as a precursor for the synthesis of steroid hormones, bile acids, and vitamin D. It is a hydrophobic molecule that is transported in the bloodstream as part of lipoprotein particles, playing a vital role in maintaining cellular integrity and fluidity while also being involved in cellular signaling processes.
Coenzymes: Coenzymes are organic non-protein molecules that bind to enzymes and assist in catalyzing reactions. They often act as carriers of electrons, atoms, or functional groups transferred during the reaction.
Complementary DNA (cDNA) libraries: cDNA libraries are collections of complementary DNA (cDNA) sequences synthesized from mRNA templates. They are used to study gene expression and identify coding regions in genomics research.
Corticosteroids: Corticosteroids are steroid hormones produced by the adrenal cortex, involved in a wide range of physiological processes. They regulate metabolism, immune response, and stress.
Covalent bonds: Covalent bonds are a type of chemical bond where two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons, allowing them to achieve greater stability. This sharing of electrons usually occurs between nonmetals and is crucial in forming molecules like water and carbon dioxide. The strength and stability of covalent bonds are essential for the structure and function of many biological molecules, such as proteins and nucleic acids.
Cysteine: Cysteine is a sulfur-containing amino acid that plays a crucial role in protein synthesis and function. It contains a thiol (-SH) group that allows it to form disulfide bonds, which are important for stabilizing the three-dimensional structure of proteins. This amino acid is also involved in various metabolic processes and can act as a precursor to other important molecules like glutathione, a powerful antioxidant.
Dideoxynucleotides: Dideoxynucleotides are modified nucleotides lacking a 3' hydroxyl group, which prevents the addition of further nucleotides during DNA synthesis. They are essential components in Sanger sequencing for terminating DNA strand elongation at specific bases.
DNA: DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in nearly all living organisms, encoding the genetic instructions that govern the development, functioning, growth, and reproduction of cells. This molecule is central to many biological processes, linking the concepts of genetic inheritance to molecular biology and the chemistry of life.
Double bonds: Double bonds are a type of chemical bond where two pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms, resulting in a stronger bond compared to single bonds. This bond configuration is especially significant in organic molecules, influencing their structure and reactivity. Double bonds can affect the physical properties of compounds, such as melting and boiling points, and play a crucial role in the formation of functional groups in organic chemistry.
Enantiomers: Enantiomers are a pair of molecules that are mirror images of each other but cannot be superimposed. They often have identical physical properties but can interact differently with biological systems and polarized light.
Enzymes: Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in living organisms without being consumed in the process. They play a crucial role in various biological processes, including metabolism, cellular respiration, and the synthesis of macromolecules, and are essential for life.
Fatty acids: Fatty acids are long-chain hydrocarbons with a carboxyl group (-COOH) at one end, playing a vital role as building blocks of lipids. They are essential components of various biological macromolecules and serve as a primary energy source in living organisms, connecting to various processes such as metabolism, energy storage, and cell membrane structure.
Functional groups: Functional groups are specific groups of atoms within molecules that have certain characteristic properties and chemical reactivities. They play a crucial role in determining the behavior and function of organic compounds in biological systems.
Functional Groups: Functional groups are specific groups of atoms within molecules that are responsible for the characteristic chemical reactions of those molecules. They play a crucial role in determining the properties and behaviors of organic compounds, influencing everything from solubility to reactivity and interactions with other molecules.
Geometric isomers: Geometric isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but differ in the spatial arrangement of atoms around a double bond or ring structure. These differences can lead to distinct chemical and physical properties.
Hormones: Hormones are chemical messengers produced by glands in the endocrine system that travel through the bloodstream to regulate various physiological processes in the body. They play a critical role in maintaining homeostasis, influencing growth, metabolism, reproduction, and responses to stress or environmental changes.
Hybridization: Hybridization refers to the process of combining different forms of a species to create a new hybrid with traits from both parents. This concept is essential in understanding the formation of complex organic molecules and the genetic diversity found in seed plants, allowing for adaptations to different environments and conditions.
Hybridizations: Hybridization is the process of crossing two different species or varieties to produce a hybrid. In genetics, it is often used to study inheritance patterns and trait expression.
Hydrocarbons: Hydrocarbons are organic compounds composed exclusively of hydrogen and carbon atoms. They serve as the fundamental building blocks for more complex biological molecules and are primarily found in fossil fuels.
Hydrocarbons: Hydrocarbons are organic compounds composed exclusively of hydrogen and carbon atoms. They are the primary constituents of fossil fuels and play a crucial role in various biological processes and the formation of larger organic molecules. The unique properties of hydrocarbons, such as their ability to store energy and their diverse structural forms, make them essential in both natural systems and human applications.
Hydroxyl: Hydroxyl refers to a functional group consisting of an oxygen atom bonded to a hydrogen atom, represented as -OH. This group is crucial in organic chemistry as it is characteristic of alcohols and plays a key role in various biochemical processes. Hydroxyl groups can influence the physical and chemical properties of molecules, such as their solubility and reactivity, making them essential in the study of carbon-based compounds.
Inositol phospholipids: Inositol phospholipids are a group of lipids that play critical roles in cell signaling by acting as substrates for the production of secondary messengers. They are located primarily in the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane.
Isomers: Isomers are molecules with the same molecular formula but different structures or spatial arrangements. These variations lead to different physical and chemical properties.
Isomers: Isomers are compounds that have the same molecular formula but differ in the arrangement of atoms or the spatial orientation of their structures. This variation in structure leads to differences in chemical and physical properties, making isomers a key concept in understanding molecular diversity. Isomers can be classified into different types, such as structural isomers and stereoisomers, which play important roles in biological systems, especially in the behavior of carbohydrates.
Lipids: Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic organic molecules that play crucial roles in biological systems, including energy storage, structural components of cell membranes, and signaling molecules. They include fats, oils, waxes, and steroids, and their chemical properties are largely defined by their long hydrocarbon chains or ring structures. Understanding lipids is key to grasping essential biological processes like metabolism and cell function.
Nucleotides: Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids, consisting of a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar, and one or more phosphate groups. They play a crucial role in various biological processes, such as energy transfer, cellular signaling, and the synthesis of DNA and RNA.
Organic molecules: Organic molecules are compounds primarily made of carbon atoms, often combined with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus. These molecules are the foundation of all living organisms, playing critical roles in structure and function. Their unique properties arise from the presence of carbon, which can form stable bonds with many elements and create complex structures that are vital for life processes.
Phosphate: Phosphate is a chemical compound containing the phosphate ion, PO₄³⁻, which plays a vital role in biological systems. It is essential for energy transfer, as it is a key component of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the molecule that powers cellular processes. Additionally, phosphate is crucial for the formation of DNA and RNA, making it fundamental for genetic information transfer and cellular function.
Phospholipids: Phospholipids are a class of lipids that are fundamental components of cell membranes, consisting of two fatty acid tails and a phosphate group attached to a glycerol backbone. Their unique structure allows them to form bilayers, which create a barrier that separates the interior of the cell from the external environment, playing a crucial role in cellular function and integrity.
Proteins: Proteins are large, complex molecules made up of amino acids that play critical roles in the structure, function, and regulation of the body’s tissues and organs. They are essential for various biological processes including catalyzing metabolic reactions, replicating DNA, responding to stimuli, and transporting molecules. The diverse structures and functions of proteins make them a fundamental component of living organisms, linking closely with concepts of carbon, biological macromolecule synthesis, and the nutritional needs of plants.
Resonance: Resonance refers to the phenomenon in which a molecule can be represented by two or more valid Lewis structures that differ only in the placement of electrons. This concept is crucial for understanding the stability and reactivity of molecules, as it allows for a more accurate depiction of electron distribution, particularly in complex organic compounds like those containing carbon.
Single bonds: Single bonds are a type of chemical bond where two atoms share one pair of electrons. This bond is the simplest form of covalent bonding, allowing for the formation of stable molecules like hydrocarbons. In the context of carbon, single bonds are fundamental for creating various organic compounds and play a crucial role in determining the structure and reactivity of these molecules.
Steroids: Steroids are a class of organic compounds characterized by a four-ring carbon structure. They play crucial roles in biological processes, including acting as hormones that regulate various physiological functions, and they are also involved in cell membrane structure. The unique arrangement of carbon atoms in steroids allows for a variety of functional groups, giving rise to different types of steroids with specific roles in the body.
Structural isomers: Structural isomers are molecules that share the same molecular formula but differ in the connectivity of their atoms. This difference in structure can result in distinct physical and chemical properties.
Substituted hydrocarbons: Substituted hydrocarbons are organic compounds in which one or more hydrogen atoms in a hydrocarbon are replaced by other atoms or groups of atoms. These substitutions alter the chemical properties and reactivity of the original hydrocarbon.
Sulfhydryl: Sulfhydryl refers to a functional group in organic chemistry that consists of a sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen atom, represented as -SH. This group plays a crucial role in the structure and function of various biomolecules, particularly proteins, where it can form disulfide bonds that stabilize protein structures and influence their activity.
Triple bonds: A triple bond is a type of covalent bond formed when three pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms. This strong interaction results in a very stable connection, which is often found in molecules containing elements such as carbon and nitrogen. Triple bonds play a significant role in determining the physical and chemical properties of compounds, influencing their reactivity and stability.
Valence electrons: Valence electrons are the outermost electrons of an atom that are involved in chemical bonding and reactions. These electrons determine how an atom interacts with other atoms, influencing the formation of molecules and the types of bonds that can be formed. Understanding valence electrons is crucial for grasping the behavior of carbon, a key element in organic chemistry, as it has four valence electrons, allowing it to form diverse and stable bonds with various elements.