2.2 Behaviorism and the Cognitive Revolution
4 min read•july 25, 2024
dominated psychology in the early 20th century, focusing on and . It introduced key concepts like classical and , shaping our understanding of learning and behavior modification.
However, behaviorism had limitations in explaining complex . This paved the way for the cognitive revolution, which shifted focus to internal mental processes and , revolutionizing the field of psychology.
Behaviorism
Tenets of behaviorism
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- Observable and measurable behavior prioritized rejects introspection and mental concepts emphasizes environmental influences on behavior
- Focused on external stimuli and responses ignores internal thought processes (Black box approach)
- Believed behavior shaped by environment not innate factors (Nature vs nurture debate)
- explains behavior as result of environmental stimuli learning occurs through association and reinforcement
- Emphasized importance of rewards and punishments in shaping behavior ( experiments)
- Viewed complex behaviors as chains of simple stimulus-response associations ()
- discovered by Pavlov demonstrates learning through association between stimuli
- (food) paired with neutral stimulus (bell) produces (salivation)
- and observed when conditioned stimulus presented without unconditioned stimulus
- Operant conditioning developed by Skinner focuses on consequences of behavior
- increases behavior frequency (Praise for good grades)
- removes aversive stimulus to increase behavior (Taking aspirin to relieve headache)
- decreases behavior frequency (Time-out for misbehavior)
- Behaviorist principles applied in various settings to modify behavior
- used in classrooms and institutions reward desired behaviors with tokens exchangeable for privileges
- treats phobias by gradually exposing patient to feared stimulus while in relaxed state
Limitations of behaviorism
- Language acquisition and development not adequately explained by behaviorist principles
- Chomsky argued for innate (LAD) to explain rapid language learning in children
- Complex cognitive processes like problem-solving and decision-making difficult to account for using stimulus-response model
- and demonstrate internal mental processes not observable externally
- Memory and information processing not fully addressed by behaviorist theories
- Short-term and distinctions not explained by simple associative learning
- Individual differences in learning and behavior not well-explained by universal principles of conditioning
- Genetic factors and personality traits influence learning outcomes differently for each person
- Human motivation and emotion oversimplified by focusing solely on external reinforcement
- and complex emotional states not adequately addressed by behaviorist theories
- Perception and attention processes involve cognitive components beyond simple stimulus detection
- and demonstrate importance of internal mental states
- Creativity and innovation difficult to explain through behaviorist principles alone
- Novel problem-solving and artistic expression involve complex cognitive processes not reducible to learned associations
Cognitive Revolution
Emergence of cognitive revolution
- Shift from behaviorism to cognitive psychology redirected focus to internal mental processes emphasized information processing models
- Mind viewed as active processor of information rather than passive responder to stimuli
- Cognitive processes studied include perception memory language and problem-solving
- Computer science and information theory influenced development of cognitive psychology
- Mind conceptualized as information processor similar to computer ()
- Computational models of cognition developed to simulate human cognitive processes ( )
- Renewed interest in consciousness and emerged
- Cognitive psychologists explored concepts like mental imagery and schemas
- Debate over nature of mental representations (Propositional vs analog)
- Integration of and cognitive psychology led to new insights
- Brain imaging techniques (fMRI PET) allowed study of neural correlates of cognitive processes
- emerged as interdisciplinary field combining cognitive psychology and neuroscience
Key figures in cognitive revolution
- critiqued Skinner's verbal behavior theory proposed generative grammar and language acquisition device (LAD)
- Argued for innate language capacity challenging behaviorist explanations of language learning
- influenced linguistics and cognitive science
- published "The Magical Number Seven Plus or Minus Two" introduced in memory
- Demonstrated limitations of capacity (7 ± 2 items)
- Contributed to development of psycholinguistics studying language processing and acquisition
- published "Cognitive Psychology" (1967) emphasized in research
- Coined term "cognitive psychology" helping establish field as distinct area of study
- Advocated for more naturalistic research methods to increase real-world applicability
- developed studied selective attention and information processing
- demonstrated ability to focus on specific auditory stimuli while filtering out others
- Early vs late selection models of attention debated in cognitive psychology
- studied perception and cognition contributed to educational psychology
- Proposed three modes of representation enactive iconic and symbolic
- emphasized importance of active exploration in learning process
- and developed artificial intelligence contributed to information processing theory of problem-solving
- (GPS) program demonstrated computer simulation of human problem-solving
- Proposed problem space concept to understand cognitive processes in problem-solving
- distinguished between episodic and proposed
- involves personal experiences semantic memory involves general knowledge
- Encoding specificity principle states retrieval cues most effective when match encoding conditions
Key Terms to Review (56)
ACT-R: ACT-R (Adaptive Control of Thought - Rational) is a cognitive architecture that simulates human thought processes and behavior. It serves as a framework for understanding how people think, learn, and remember by modeling cognitive functions through production rules and a declarative memory system. ACT-R bridges the gap between behaviorism and cognitive psychology, showcasing how mental processes can be systematically studied and represented in computational terms.
Allen Newell: Allen Newell was a pioneering figure in cognitive psychology and artificial intelligence, known for his work on the development of cognitive models and information processing theories. He played a crucial role in bridging the gap between behaviorism and cognitive approaches, significantly contributing to the understanding of human cognition through computer simulations and modeling. His collaboration with Herbert A. Simon resulted in foundational theories that emphasize how people think and solve problems.
Analog Representation: Analog representation refers to the way information is represented in a continuous form that resembles the physical characteristics of the object or concept being represented. This concept is crucial in understanding how our cognitive processes create mental images and maps that mirror reality, linking perception and memory to behavior in a way that counters the discrete nature of digital information.
B.F. Skinner: B.F. Skinner was a prominent American psychologist known for his work in behaviorism and operant conditioning. He emphasized the role of reinforcement and punishment in shaping behavior, which laid the groundwork for understanding learning processes in both humans and animals. His theories significantly influenced the cognitive revolution, highlighting the importance of observable behaviors over internal mental states.
Behaviorism: Behaviorism is a psychological approach that focuses on observable behaviors and the ways they're learned through interactions with the environment. It emphasizes the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning, either classical or operant, and rejects introspection as a method of study. This perspective dominated psychology for much of the early to mid-20th century and laid the groundwork for later developments in cognitive psychology.
Chaining: Chaining is a behavioral psychology concept that involves linking together a series of individual behaviors into a complex sequence, where each behavior serves as a cue for the next. This method is crucial for understanding how complex behaviors are learned and performed by breaking them down into smaller, manageable parts. Chaining highlights the importance of reinforcement at each step, encouraging progression through the series until the entire behavior is mastered.
Chunking theory: Chunking theory is a cognitive strategy that involves grouping individual pieces of information into larger, more manageable units or 'chunks' to enhance memory retention and recall. This approach helps to reduce cognitive load by allowing individuals to process more information at once, ultimately improving short-term memory performance. The concept of chunking is fundamental to understanding how humans can remember and organize complex information efficiently.
Classical conditioning: Classical conditioning is a learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, eventually eliciting a similar response. This concept highlights the way behaviors can be learned through association, which was a key focus of behaviorism, emphasizing observable behavior over internal mental states. Classical conditioning played a significant role in the cognitive revolution, as it demonstrated how environmental factors can influence cognitive processes and behavior.
Cocktail Party Effect: The cocktail party effect is the ability of individuals to focus their auditory attention on a specific stimulus, such as a conversation, while filtering out other stimuli, like background noise. This phenomenon highlights how selective attention works in complex environments, showcasing how we can hone in on meaningful information amidst distractions.
Cognitive Maps: Cognitive maps are mental representations of physical spaces that help individuals navigate and understand their environment. These mental images allow people to visualize the layout of their surroundings, facilitating tasks such as planning routes or recalling locations. Cognitive maps are crucial in understanding how we process spatial information and navigate through the world, connecting to broader ideas of learning and memory.
Cognitive Neuroscience: Cognitive neuroscience is the interdisciplinary field that combines cognitive psychology and neuroscience to understand how brain processes influence cognitive functions such as perception, memory, and decision-making. This field bridges the gap between understanding mental processes and the underlying neural mechanisms, showcasing how brain activity correlates with various cognitive tasks and behaviors.
Cognitive Processes: Cognitive processes refer to the mental activities involved in acquiring, processing, storing, and retrieving information. These processes include perception, attention, memory, reasoning, problem-solving, and decision-making. Understanding cognitive processes is essential for exploring how people learn and interact with their environment, as well as for evaluating the impact of various factors such as behaviorism and technological advancements in neuroscience.
Conditioned Response: A conditioned response is a learned reaction to a previously neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a response. This concept highlights how behaviors can be modified through experience, as the organism learns to associate a certain stimulus with a specific outcome. Conditioned responses are fundamental to understanding how behavior can be shaped, reflecting the underlying mechanisms of learning and adaptation.
Discovery Learning Theory: Discovery learning theory is an educational approach that emphasizes the role of exploration and inquiry in the learning process, where learners gain knowledge through their own experiences rather than through direct instruction. This theory encourages active participation and critical thinking, allowing students to construct their own understanding of concepts. It is closely associated with cognitive psychology, which focuses on how information is processed and understood, marking a shift from traditional behaviorist approaches that emphasized rote memorization.
Donald Broadbent: Donald Broadbent was a British psychologist renowned for his pioneering work in cognitive psychology, particularly in the area of attention. He is best known for developing the filter model of attention, which posits that individuals have a limited capacity to process information and must filter out irrelevant stimuli to focus on what is important. Broadbent's theories marked a significant shift from behaviorism to cognitive psychology, highlighting the importance of mental processes in understanding human behavior.
Ecological Validity: Ecological validity refers to the extent to which research findings can be generalized to real-world settings, ensuring that the conditions of a study accurately reflect how behavior occurs in everyday life. This concept is crucial as it helps bridge the gap between controlled experimental settings and practical applications, influencing how results can be applied outside of the laboratory. High ecological validity means that the research has implications and relevance beyond the specific conditions under which it was conducted.
Encoding Specificity Principle: The encoding specificity principle states that memory retrieval is more effective when the context at the time of encoding matches the context at the time of retrieval. This principle highlights the importance of environmental cues and internal states in facilitating access to stored memories, suggesting that the conditions under which information is learned greatly influence how it can be recalled later.
Endel Tulving: Endel Tulving is a prominent cognitive psychologist known for his groundbreaking research in memory, particularly in differentiating types of memory systems. His work has significantly influenced how we understand the processes of encoding, storing, and retrieving information, with a particular focus on the concepts of episodic and semantic memory. Tulving's theories challenged earlier behaviorist approaches that emphasized observable behaviors over mental processes, helping to pave the way for the cognitive revolution in psychology.
Environmental Influences: Environmental influences refer to the external factors and conditions that shape individual behavior, cognition, and development. These influences can range from family dynamics and educational opportunities to cultural norms and socioeconomic status, impacting everything from learning processes to intelligence outcomes. Understanding these influences is crucial as they highlight how context and experience interact with inherent abilities to shape human psychology.
Episodic Memory: Episodic memory is a type of long-term memory that involves the recollection of specific events, situations, and experiences in a person's life, including contextual details like time and place. This form of memory allows individuals to recall personal experiences, providing a mental diary of significant moments. Understanding episodic memory helps clarify the differences in memory processing, how memories are formed and retrieved, and the changes that occur in memory functions throughout a person’s life.
Extinction: Extinction is the process by which a previously conditioned response diminishes or disappears over time when the reinforcement or pairing with an unconditioned stimulus is removed. This concept is crucial in behaviorism, where it illustrates how learned behaviors can fade when the rewards or stimuli that maintain them are no longer present, impacting both behavioral patterns and cognitive processes during the Cognitive Revolution.
Filter Theory of Attention: The filter theory of attention suggests that our cognitive system selectively filters out information based on its relevance, allowing us to focus on specific stimuli while ignoring others. This concept emerged as a key idea during the cognitive revolution, which sought to understand how mental processes such as attention and perception work, contrasting sharply with the behaviorist perspective that dominated psychology before. By emphasizing the importance of internal cognitive processes, the filter theory highlights how we navigate a world filled with competing sensory information.
General Problem Solver: The General Problem Solver (GPS) is a computer program developed in the 1950s that was designed to simulate human problem-solving processes. It aimed to find solutions to a variety of problems by using means-ends analysis, which involved breaking down problems into smaller, manageable parts and systematically exploring options. GPS played a crucial role in the transition from behaviorism to cognitive psychology by demonstrating how mental processes could be modeled computationally, reflecting the growing interest in understanding human cognition.
George Miller: George Miller was a prominent psychologist known for his contributions to cognitive psychology, particularly in understanding memory and information processing. He is best remembered for his seminal work on the capacity of short-term memory, famously encapsulated in his paper 'The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two,' which highlighted the limitations of human memory and set the stage for the cognitive revolution, challenging the prevailing behaviorist approaches of his time.
Herbert Simon: Herbert Simon was an influential American psychologist, economist, and computer scientist known for his work on decision-making processes, problem-solving, and artificial intelligence. He played a crucial role in the development of cognitive psychology by challenging the behaviorist approach, emphasizing the importance of mental processes and internal states in understanding human behavior.
Human Information Processing Model: The human information processing model is a theoretical framework that describes how individuals perceive, process, and store information. This model illustrates the stages of cognition, from sensory input to memory encoding and retrieval, emphasizing the active role of the mind in understanding and interacting with the world. It connects closely with behaviorism and the cognitive revolution by highlighting the shift from viewing behavior as merely a response to stimuli, to understanding the mental processes that underlie those behaviors.
Information Processing Models: Information processing models refer to theoretical frameworks that describe how the human mind processes, stores, and retrieves information, often likening mental functions to computer operations. These models highlight the sequential stages of information handling, including input, processing, storage, and output, thus emphasizing the cognitive mechanisms that underlie learning and behavior. They emerged as a response to behaviorism, shifting focus from observable behaviors to internal mental processes.
Insight Learning: Insight learning is a cognitive process where an individual suddenly realizes how to solve a problem without trial-and-error experimentation. This sudden understanding often occurs after a period of contemplation and can lead to immediate behavioral changes. It is characterized by an 'aha' moment, where the solution becomes clear, connecting prior knowledge with the new situation at hand.
Intrinsic Motivation: Intrinsic motivation refers to the drive to engage in activities for their own sake, because they are inherently enjoyable or fulfilling, rather than for some separable consequence. This type of motivation is crucial for learning, creativity, and personal growth, as it leads individuals to pursue challenges and experiences that align with their interests and values, rather than relying on external rewards or pressures.
Jerome Bruner: Jerome Bruner was a prominent American psychologist known for his contributions to cognitive psychology and education. He emphasized the importance of social interaction and cultural context in learning, which helped shape the understanding of cognitive development and educational practices during and after the cognitive revolution.
John Watson: John Watson was an American psychologist who is best known as the founder of behaviorism, a school of thought that emphasizes observable behaviors over internal mental processes. His work marked a significant shift in psychology, moving away from introspective methods and focusing instead on the environmental factors that shape behavior. Watson's ideas laid the groundwork for later research in both behaviorism and cognitive psychology, influencing how psychologists study learning and behavior modification.
Language acquisition device: The language acquisition device (LAD) is a theoretical construct proposed by Noam Chomsky that suggests humans are born with an innate ability to acquire language. This concept emphasizes the idea that children have a built-in mechanism that allows them to understand and produce language without explicit instruction, highlighting the cognitive structures that facilitate this process. The LAD supports the notion that language learning is a natural, instinctive process, rather than solely a product of environmental factors or reinforcement.
Long-term Memory: Long-term memory is the system responsible for storing information over extended periods, ranging from days to a lifetime. It plays a crucial role in retaining experiences, knowledge, and skills, allowing individuals to draw upon past information to inform future actions. This type of memory can be divided into explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative) memory, which are essential for various cognitive processes and development.
Memory Processing: Memory processing refers to the series of steps involved in acquiring, storing, and retrieving information in the brain. This term emphasizes the cognitive activities that take place during each stage of memory, highlighting how experiences are transformed into lasting memories and later accessed when needed. Understanding memory processing is essential as it reveals the interplay between behaviorism and cognitive psychology, showcasing how mental processes can shape our understanding of learning and retention.
Mental Representations: Mental representations are internal cognitive symbols that stand for external reality, allowing individuals to process and understand the world around them. They can take various forms, such as images, concepts, and schemas, which help us organize information and facilitate reasoning. These representations are central to cognitive processes like perception, memory, and problem-solving, serving as the building blocks for how we comprehend experiences and communicate ideas.
Negative Reinforcement: Negative reinforcement is a behavioral concept that involves the removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a desired behavior being repeated. It is not punishment, but rather a way to strengthen behaviors by taking away something undesirable when the behavior occurs. This concept plays a critical role in understanding how behaviors are acquired and maintained, bridging the gap between behaviorist principles and cognitive processes.
Neuroscience: Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system, focusing on the structure, function, and development of the brain and spinal cord. It explores how neural connections influence behavior, cognition, and emotions, bridging biology with psychology to provide insights into the mind's inner workings and the biological basis of mental processes.
Noam Chomsky: Noam Chomsky is a renowned linguist, cognitive scientist, and philosopher, widely regarded as the father of modern linguistics. He revolutionized the field by introducing the theory of universal grammar, which posits that all humans have an innate ability to acquire language due to a shared underlying structure. This concept challenged behaviorist views on language acquisition, highlighting the cognitive processes involved in learning language.
Observable behavior: Observable behavior refers to any action or response that can be seen, measured, and quantified. In psychology, it is the primary focus of behaviorism, which emphasizes that psychology should only study what can be observed directly, rather than internal mental processes. This focus on observable behavior marked a significant shift during the Cognitive Revolution, as researchers began to argue for the inclusion of cognitive processes while still recognizing the importance of observable actions in understanding human behavior.
Operant Conditioning: Operant conditioning is a learning process where behavior is modified by consequences, such as rewards or punishments. This concept is central to behaviorism, emphasizing that behavior is influenced by its outcomes, leading to either reinforcement, which increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated, or punishment, which decreases its occurrence. Understanding this process has been crucial in the shift towards cognitive perspectives, highlighting the interplay between observable behaviors and internal cognitive processes.
Positive Reinforcement: Positive reinforcement is a concept in behaviorism that involves the introduction of a favorable stimulus following a desired behavior, which increases the likelihood of that behavior being repeated in the future. This mechanism is crucial in shaping behavior by providing rewards that encourage individuals to engage in specific actions. In the context of learning and behavior, positive reinforcement serves as a key strategy for promoting desirable behaviors and fostering motivation.
Propositional Representation: Propositional representation refers to a way of mentally encoding information in the form of statements or propositions that convey meaning. This type of representation allows individuals to manipulate and understand complex ideas by breaking them down into simpler, logical components. It plays a crucial role in cognitive processes like problem-solving and reasoning, linking abstract thought to verbal expression.
Punishment: Punishment is a consequence applied after a behavior that reduces the likelihood of that behavior being repeated in the future. It serves as a key mechanism in behaviorism, where it is used to shape and control behavior by decreasing undesirable actions, contrasting with reinforcement that increases desired behaviors. The concept plays a crucial role in understanding how behavior can be modified through external stimuli.
Selective Attention: Selective attention is the cognitive process of focusing on a specific stimulus while ignoring others in the environment. This ability helps individuals filter relevant information and prioritize sensory input, allowing for efficient processing and response to important cues in various contexts.
Semantic memory: Semantic memory is a type of long-term memory that involves the storage and recall of facts, concepts, and general knowledge about the world. Unlike episodic memory, which is tied to personal experiences, semantic memory encompasses information that is not linked to specific events or contexts, allowing individuals to understand and use language, recognize objects, and grasp abstract concepts. This type of memory plays a crucial role in everyday functioning and is foundational for learning and communication.
Short-term memory: Short-term memory is a cognitive system responsible for temporarily holding and processing a limited amount of information for brief periods, typically ranging from a few seconds to a minute. It acts as a workspace for cognitive tasks, enabling individuals to manipulate and use information actively before it is either forgotten or transferred to long-term memory. This capacity is often described using Miller's Law, which suggests that the average number of objects an individual can hold in their short-term memory is about seven, plus or minus two.
Skinner Box: The Skinner Box is a controlled environment used in behavioral psychology to study operant conditioning by allowing researchers to observe the behavior of animals, typically rats or pigeons, in response to various stimuli. This apparatus enables the measurement of how rewards and punishments influence an animal's behavior, providing insights into learning processes and reinforcement schedules. By manipulating variables like food delivery or electric shocks, researchers can analyze patterns of behavior and understand fundamental principles of behaviorism.
Soar: In the context of cognitive psychology, 'soar' refers to a cognitive architecture designed to model and simulate human problem-solving and learning processes. It integrates elements of both behaviorism and cognitive theories, allowing for a better understanding of how humans think and make decisions in complex situations.
Spontaneous recovery: Spontaneous recovery refers to the re-emergence of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest without any further conditioning. This phenomenon highlights the enduring effects of learned associations and suggests that extinction does not erase the original learning but rather inhibits it temporarily. Understanding spontaneous recovery is important in the context of behaviorism and cognitive psychology, as it raises questions about how memories and learned behaviors persist over time, even when they seem to fade away.
Stimulus-response model: The stimulus-response model is a psychological framework that explains how organisms respond to external stimuli through observable behaviors. This model emphasizes the connection between a stimulus, which can be any event or object in the environment, and the response, which is the behavior or reaction elicited by that stimulus. This approach is foundational in behaviorism, highlighting the idea that behavior can be predicted and modified based on the stimuli present in an individual's environment.
Systematic Desensitization: Systematic desensitization is a behavioral therapy technique used to help individuals overcome phobias and anxiety disorders by gradually exposing them to the feared object or situation while teaching them relaxation techniques. This method combines exposure therapy with relaxation strategies to reduce the fear response. It aims to replace the anxious response with a relaxed state, ultimately leading to reduced fear and avoidance behaviors.
Token Economies: Token economies are behavioral modification systems where individuals earn tokens for displaying desired behaviors, which can later be exchanged for various rewards. This approach is rooted in behaviorism, emphasizing observable behaviors and the external reinforcement provided through tokens, linking it to broader themes of conditioning and the cognitive revolution by showcasing how behavior can be shaped and understood through reinforcement mechanisms.
Top-down processing: Top-down processing refers to the cognitive process where our brains use prior knowledge, experiences, and expectations to interpret and understand sensory information. This approach emphasizes how our mental framework shapes our perception, influencing how we perceive stimuli based on context, rather than just relying on the incoming sensory data alone.
Transformational Grammar Theory: Transformational grammar theory is a linguistic framework developed by Noam Chomsky that describes the structure of language through a set of rules that generate sentences from abstract representations. This theory highlights the relationship between deep structure (the underlying meaning) and surface structure (the expressed form), emphasizing how different sentences can convey the same meaning through transformation. It significantly shifted the focus from behaviorist approaches to understanding language, bridging insights from cognitive psychology and linguistics.
Ulric Neisser: Ulric Neisser was a prominent psychologist known as the 'father of cognitive psychology,' who played a critical role in the transition from behaviorism to cognitive science. He emphasized the importance of studying internal mental processes, such as perception, memory, and problem-solving, and his work helped to shape modern cognitive psychology by challenging the behaviorist perspective that dominated prior to the cognitive revolution. Neisser's influential book, 'Cognitive Psychology,' published in 1967, laid the groundwork for future research in the field and introduced concepts that remain integral to cognitive studies today.
Unconditioned Stimulus: An unconditioned stimulus (US) is a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any prior learning or conditioning. This concept is foundational in behaviorism, where it emphasizes how certain stimuli can elicit instinctive reactions, leading to the formation of associations between different stimuli and responses. In the context of classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus is essential for understanding how organisms learn to associate new stimuli with innate reactions.