15.1 Cicero's philosophical works and their Greek influences
4 min read•august 1, 2024
Cicero, a Roman philosopher, adapted Greek ideas to Roman contexts in his ethical and political works. His writings on government, law, and duty blended Stoic, Skeptic, and Platonic influences, making complex Greek concepts accessible to Roman audiences.
Cicero's philosophical dialogues explored various schools of thought, often without endorsing a single perspective. He created Latin philosophical vocabulary and legitimized philosophy as a worthy pursuit for Roman elites, emphasizing its practical applications in public life and oratory.
Cicero's Major Philosophical Works
Ethical and Political Treatises
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"" (On the Republic) explores ideal government forms and concepts
Adapts ideas from 's "Republic" to Roman contexts
Examines the balance of power in mixed constitutions
Introduces the concept of the "Dream of Scipio," a vision of and afterlife
"" (On the Laws) investigates law's nature and origins
Argues for universal transcending human legislation
Discusses the relationship between divine law, natural law, and civil law
Proposes reforms for Roman legal and religious institutions
"" (On Duties) outlines Cicero's practical ethical philosophy
Emphasizes moral guidance for Roman statesmen and citizens
Explores the conflict between moral rectitude and expediency
Discusses virtues like justice, beneficence, and courage in public life
Philosophical Dialogues and Disputations
"" (On the Ends of Good and Evil) examines ethical theories
Compares Epicurean, Stoic, and Peripatetic views on the highest good
Critiques hedonism and advocates for as central to happiness
Introduces Roman philosophical terminology for Greek concepts
"" (Tusculan Disputations) addresses human happiness and virtue
Explores death, pain, grief, and other emotions from a philosophical perspective
Discusses techniques for achieving tranquility and overcoming fear
Examines the nature of virtue and its relationship to wisdom
"" (On the Nature of the Gods) presents theological arguments
Explores Epicurean, Stoic, and Academic views on divine nature and existence
Discusses the role of religion in society and politics
Examines arguments for divine providence and design in nature
Greek Influences on Cicero
Stoic Philosophy
Stoic ethics significantly shaped Cicero's moral philosophy
Emphasized virtue as the highest good (honestum)
Promoted living in accordance with nature (secundum naturam vivere)
Adopted Stoic concept of natural law in political and legal theories
Posited a universal moral order inherent in nature
Influenced Cicero's views on justice and good governance
Incorporated Stoic ideas on cosmic order and human reason
Discussed the role of reason in understanding divine and natural law
Explored the concept of duty () in relation to cosmic order
Skepticism and Academic Tradition
Adopted Skeptic approach of presenting multiple viewpoints
Used dialogues to explore different philosophical positions
Often refrained from definitively endorsing a single perspective
Influenced by Academic of
Emphasized probabilism rather than absolute certainty
Explored limits of human knowledge in "Academica"
Applied Skeptic methods to Roman legal and political contexts
Used probabilistic reasoning in forensic and deliberative rhetoric
Advocated for careful examination of evidence in decision-making
Platonic and Aristotelian Elements
Incorporated Platonic ideas on ideal forms and governance
Adapted concepts from Plato's "Republic" in "De Republica"
Discussed the role of philosopher-rulers in society
Utilized Aristotelian ethical concepts
Explored virtue ethics and the mean between extremes
Discussed the role of habit and education in character formation
Synthesized Greek philosophical schools in unique ways
Combined elements of , Skepticism, , and
Adapted Greek ideas to align with Roman values and practical concerns
Cicero's Role in Transmission of Philosophy
Translation and Adaptation of Greek Concepts
Created Latin philosophical vocabulary
Coined terms like "essentia" for Greek "ousia" (essence)
Translated "katorthoma" as "perfectum officium" (perfect duty)
Made complex Greek ideas accessible to Roman audience
Contextualized philosophical concepts within Roman cultural frameworks
Used Roman historical examples to illustrate abstract ideas
Preserved Greek philosophical debates during Roman political upheaval
Recorded arguments from various schools in his dialogues
Transmitted ideas that might have otherwise been lost
Legitimization of Philosophy in Roman Culture
Presented philosophy as worthy pursuit for Roman elites
Argued for the practical value of philosophical study in public life
Demonstrated how philosophy could enhance oratory and statesmanship
Emphasized practical applications of Greek philosophy
Applied Stoic ethics to Roman political and social contexts
Used Skeptic methods in legal argumentation
Introduced Stoicism and Skepticism to wider Roman audience
Popularized key concepts from these schools in his writings
Adapted Greek philosophical ideas to Roman sensibilities
Cicero's Contributions to Roman Philosophy
Development of Roman Philosophical Approach
Created distinctly Roman approach emphasizing practical wisdom
Focused on application of philosophy to politics and ethics
Blended theoretical knowledge with practical experience
Developed concept of
Combined Greek paideia (education) with Roman virtues
Emphasized cultivation of both intellect and character
Advanced idea of natural law in Roman context
Argued for supremacy of natural law over human-made laws
Connected natural law to Roman ideas of justice and governance
Integration of Philosophy and Roman Values
Emphasized role of orator as ideal philosopher-statesman
Promoted union of eloquence and wisdom in public service
Reflected Roman values of civic duty and persuasive speech
Incorporated Roman historical examples in philosophical discourse
Used figures like to illustrate moral principles
Connected abstract ideas to concrete Roman experiences
Developed skeptical approach tempered by Roman pragmatism
Sought probable truths to guide action in public life
Balanced theoretical doubt with practical decision-making
Key Terms to Review (24)
Aristotelianism: Aristotelianism is a philosophical tradition that originates from the works and teachings of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. This school of thought emphasizes empirical observation, logic, and the systematic classification of knowledge, influencing various fields including ethics, politics, and natural sciences. Its core ideas are deeply connected to classical Greek philosophy and have had a lasting impact on later thinkers, especially in relation to Roman philosophy and figures like Cicero.
Aristotle: Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist, considered one of the greatest thinkers in Western philosophy. He made significant contributions across various fields such as metaphysics, ethics, politics, and natural sciences, influencing numerous cultural and historical periods. His relationship with Plato's ideas highlights the evolution of philosophical thought, while his works also laid the groundwork for later thinkers and cultural exchanges during the Hellenistic period.
Carneades: Carneades was a prominent philosopher of the Hellenistic period, best known for his work as a leader of the Academy in Athens and his development of the New Academy's skeptical philosophy. He challenged the prevailing dogmatic views of the time, particularly concerning knowledge and ethics, and he is famously associated with the idea that certainty is unattainable. His influence extends to later philosophical thought, especially in the context of skepticism and moral philosophy.
Cosmic order: Cosmic order refers to the idea of an overarching structure or harmony in the universe that governs all existence, from natural phenomena to human society. This concept suggests that everything is interconnected and follows a rational principle, often seen as a reflection of divine reason or natural law. The notion of cosmic order is significant in understanding philosophical works that draw from Greek thought, especially in how it relates to ethics, governance, and the role of humanity within the universe.
De finibus bonorum et malorum: The phrase 'de finibus bonorum et malorum' translates to 'On the Ends of Good and Evil,' which refers to a philosophical work by Cicero that explores the nature of ethics and the ultimate goals of human life. This text critically examines different philosophical schools, especially the Greek traditions, as it attempts to determine what constitutes the highest good and the nature of moral values. The work is significant as it not only articulates Cicero's ethical views but also demonstrates the influence of Greek philosophy on Roman thought.
De legibus: De legibus, or 'On the Laws,' is a philosophical work by Cicero that explores the nature of law and its relationship to morality, justice, and the ideal state. It presents Cicero's thoughts on the purpose of laws, their origins, and how they align with natural law principles influenced by Greek philosophy. This work is crucial in understanding the development of political philosophy and ethics in Roman thought.
De natura deorum: De natura deorum, or 'On the Nature of the Gods', is a philosophical work by Cicero that explores the nature and existence of the gods through dialogues among characters who represent various philosophical schools of thought. This work reflects Cicero's deep engagement with Greek philosophy, particularly the ideas of the Stoics and the Epicureans, addressing questions about divine providence, the nature of the gods, and their relation to human affairs.
De officiis: De officiis is a philosophical work by Cicero that translates to 'On Duties' and serves as a guide to ethical behavior and moral obligation. It reflects Cicero's desire to blend Greek philosophical ideas, especially Stoicism and Platonic thought, with Roman values of duty and civic responsibility. The work addresses the nature of duty, the role of virtue, and the importance of ethical conduct in public life.
De republica: De republica is a philosophical work by Cicero that examines the nature of the Roman state and its ideal government structure. This text draws heavily from Greek philosophy, particularly the ideas of Plato, focusing on justice, the role of the citizen, and the importance of moral virtue in governance. Cicero's exploration of these themes laid the groundwork for future discussions on political theory and ethics in governance.
Ethos: Ethos refers to the character, credibility, and ethical appeal of a speaker or writer, which helps to establish trust and authority in their arguments. This concept plays a crucial role in persuasive communication, as it influences how an audience perceives the integrity and reliability of the communicator. In both civic life in classical Athens and philosophical writings in ancient Rome, ethos shaped how individuals interacted with one another and how ideas were received and debated.
Hellenization: Hellenization refers to the spread of Greek culture, language, and ideas across the Mediterranean and Near Eastern regions, particularly following the conquests of Alexander the Great. This cultural diffusion resulted in a blending of Greek and local traditions, impacting various aspects of life including politics, art, philosophy, and religion.
Humanitas: Humanitas refers to the concept of humanity, emphasizing the qualities that define what it means to be human, such as compassion, empathy, and cultural refinement. This term embodies the idea that through education and philosophical inquiry, individuals can cultivate a deeper understanding of themselves and their place in society, aligning with the ideals present in the philosophical works of Cicero and influenced by Greek thought.
Justice: Justice refers to the principle of moral rightness and fairness in the treatment of individuals and the distribution of resources within society. It encompasses various ideas, including equity, legal fairness, and social harmony, and plays a crucial role in shaping societal structures and philosophical debates.
Natural law: Natural law refers to a system of law based on inherent moral principles and universal human rights that are believed to be universally applicable, regardless of local laws or customs. It emphasizes the idea that certain rights and values are intrinsic to human nature and can be discovered through reason. This concept connects deeply to the development of political philosophy and ethics, shaping ideas about justice and governance.
Officium: Officium is a Latin term meaning 'duty' or 'office,' often referring to the moral obligations and responsibilities that individuals have in their personal and social lives. This concept emphasizes the importance of ethical behavior and civic responsibility in both private and public spheres, influencing the way individuals approach their roles in society.
Pathos: Pathos refers to an appeal to emotion, a rhetorical device that aims to evoke feelings in the audience to persuade or influence them. This concept is crucial in both literature and rhetoric, as it helps create a connection between the speaker or writer and their audience, allowing for deeper engagement with the material. In the context of philosophical works, especially those influenced by Greek thought, pathos plays a significant role in how arguments are framed and understood.
Plato: Plato was a prominent Greek philosopher who lived from approximately 427 to 347 BCE, known for his contributions to Western philosophy and political theory. His works often explore the nature of reality, ethics, and the ideal state, influencing various cultural and historical periods, especially during the rise of the Athenian Empire and its subsequent conflicts. Plato's ideas on the Socratic method and ethics form the foundation of much philosophical thought, and his influence can be seen in later thinkers like Cicero, whose works reflect Greek philosophical traditions.
Platonism: Platonism is a philosophical system based on the ideas of Plato, emphasizing the existence of abstract entities or forms that represent the true essence of things. It posits that these forms are more real than the objects we perceive in the material world. Platonism greatly influenced various philosophical traditions and was significant in shaping later thought, particularly during the Roman period.
Romanization of philosophy: The romanization of philosophy refers to the process through which Greek philosophical ideas and traditions were adapted, transformed, and integrated into Roman culture and thought. This phenomenon played a critical role in shaping Roman intellectual life, as Roman philosophers not only absorbed Greek concepts but also tailored them to fit the social and political context of Rome, resulting in a unique blend of philosophical ideas that emphasized practical ethics and civic responsibility.
Scipio Africanus: Scipio Africanus was a prominent Roman general known for his decisive role in the Second Punic War, particularly for defeating the Carthaginian general Hannibal at the Battle of Zama in 202 BCE. His military strategies and tactics were pivotal in securing Rome's dominance over the Mediterranean and establishing its empire, greatly influencing Roman expansion during and after the Punic Wars.
Skepticism: Skepticism is a philosophical attitude that questions the possibility of certainty in knowledge. This approach emphasizes doubt and critical inquiry, often leading to the conclusion that beliefs should be held tentatively. It plays a significant role in various philosophical traditions, particularly during the Hellenistic period, where it influenced later thinkers like Cicero and shaped discussions on ethics and politics.
Stoicism: Stoicism is an ancient Greek philosophy that teaches the development of self-control and fortitude as a means to overcome destructive emotions. This philosophy emphasizes rationality, virtue, and understanding the natural order of the universe, aiming for a life in harmony with nature and reason.
Tusculanae Disputationes: The Tusculanae Disputationes, or 'Tusculan Disputations', is a philosophical work by Cicero, composed in the late 1st century BCE, that explores various themes of ethics, the nature of happiness, and the immortality of the soul. This work reflects Cicero's efforts to synthesize Greek philosophical ideas, particularly from Stoicism and Epicureanism, into a Latin context, aiming to provide practical guidance for living a virtuous life amidst the challenges of human existence.
Virtue: Virtue refers to moral excellence and righteousness, representing the qualities that promote individual and societal well-being. It is often associated with ethical conduct and character, forming the foundation for philosophical discussions about the good life and how one should act. Virtue connects deeply with ideas of justice, knowledge, and the ideal state of being in various philosophical traditions.