🐘Buddhist Arts of Asia Unit 9 – Mahayana Buddhist Art in China

Historical Context

• Mahayana Buddhism emerged in India around the 1st century CE and spread to China via the Silk Road trade routes
• Early translations of Mahayana sutras into Chinese began in the 2nd century CE, introducing new philosophical concepts and religious practices
• The rise of the Kushan Empire (1st-3rd centuries CE) facilitated cultural exchange between India and China, aiding the transmission of Buddhist ideas
• Chinese pilgrims, such as Faxian (337-422 CE) and Xuanzang (602-664 CE), traveled to India to study Buddhism and bring back scriptures, further enriching Chinese Buddhist thought
• The support of emperors, such as Emperor Ming of the Han dynasty (r. 57-75 CE) and Emperor Wu of the Liang dynasty (r. 502-549 CE), helped establish Buddhism as a major religion in China
• The development of indigenous Chinese Buddhist schools, such as Tiantai and Huayan, demonstrated the adaptation and assimilation of Mahayana concepts into Chinese culture
• The persecution of Buddhism during the Tang dynasty (618-907 CE) under Emperor Wuzong (r. 840-846 CE) led to the destruction of many Buddhist temples and artworks, but the religion ultimately survived and continued to evolve

Key Concepts in Mahayana Buddhism

• Emphasis on the Bodhisattva path, in which enlightened beings delay their own liberation to help others attain enlightenment
• The concept of emptiness (śūnyatā), which asserts that all phenomena lack inherent existence and are interdependent
• The doctrine of the Buddha-nature (tathāgatagarbha), the belief that all sentient beings possess the potential for Buddhahood
• The importance of compassion (karuṇā) and wisdom (prajñā) as essential qualities for spiritual growth
• The development of the Pure Land school, which focuses on devotion to Amitābha Buddha and the aspiration to be reborn in his Pure Land
• The idea of skillful means (upāya), which allows Bodhisattvas to adapt their teachings to the needs and capacities of different individuals
• The Mahayana canon, which includes the Prajñāpāramitā (Perfection of Wisdom) sutras, the Lotus Sutra, and the Vimalakīrti Sutra, among others

Major Artistic Styles and Periods

• The Six Dynasties period (220-589 CE) saw the development of cave temples, such as the Mogao Caves in Dunhuang, featuring wall paintings and sculptures depicting Buddhist themes
• The Tang dynasty (618-907 CE) is considered a golden age of Chinese Buddhist art, characterized by the creation of monumental Buddha statues and the refinement of cave temple art (Longmen Grottoes)
• The Sui dynasty (581-618 CE) witnessed the construction of the Dazu Rock Carvings, which showcase a unique blend of Buddhist, Confucian, and Taoist iconography
• The Song dynasty (960-1279 CE) saw the rise of Chan (Zen) Buddhism and its influence on ink painting, exemplified by the works of Liang Kai and Muqi Fachang
• The Yuan dynasty (1271-1368 CE) introduced Tibetan Buddhist art styles, such as the use of thangkas (scroll paintings) and mandalas, reflecting the Mongol rulers' patronage of Tibetan Buddhism
• The Ming dynasty (1368-1644 CE) saw a revival of Buddhist art production, with the creation of large-scale sculptures and the restoration of earlier temples and grottoes
• The Qing dynasty (1644-1911 CE) continued the Ming dynasty's artistic traditions while also incorporating influences from Tibetan and Mongolian Buddhist art

Iconic Imagery and Symbolism

• The Buddha, often depicted with a serene expression, elongated earlobes, and a protuberance on the top of the head (uṣṇīṣa), symbolizing wisdom and enlightenment
• Bodhisattvas, such as Avalokiteśvara (Guanyin) and Mañjuśrī, representing compassion and wisdom, respectively
• The Lotus flower, a symbol of purity, enlightenment, and the potential for Buddhahood within all beings
• The Wheel of Dharma (dharmachakra), representing the Buddha's teachings and the path to liberation
• The Stupa, a dome-shaped structure housing Buddhist relics, symbolizing the Buddha's presence and the ultimate goal of enlightenment
• Mudras, or hand gestures, used by the Buddha and Bodhisattvas to convey specific meanings, such as the teaching mudra (dharmachakra mudrā) and the meditation mudra (dhyāna mudrā)
• The use of color symbolism, with gold representing the Buddha's transcendent wisdom, blue signifying the limitless nature of the Dharma, and white denoting purity and enlightenment

Architectural Developments

• The adaptation of Indian stupa architecture to create Chinese pagodas, multi-tiered towers housing Buddhist relics and serving as focal points for temples
• The development of cave temples, carved into cliffs and mountains, providing spaces for meditation, worship, and the display of Buddhist art (Mogao Caves, Longmen Grottoes, Yungang Grottoes)
• The layout of Chinese Buddhist temples, typically featuring a central axis with a series of halls dedicated to different Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, as well as living quarters for monks
• The integration of Chinese architectural elements, such as curved roofs and ornate brackets (dougong), into Buddhist temple design
• The use of wooden architecture in the construction of Buddhist halls and pagodas, exemplified by the Sakyamuni Pagoda of Fogong Temple, the oldest surviving wooden pagoda in China
• The incorporation of landscape design in Buddhist temple complexes, with gardens, ponds, and rock formations creating a serene environment for contemplation
• The development of the Chan (Zen) Buddhist monastery layout, which emphasized simplicity and harmony with nature, reflecting the school's emphasis on direct experience and meditation

Influence on Chinese Culture

• The integration of Buddhist concepts, such as karma and reincarnation, into Chinese belief systems, leading to a syncretic blend of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism
• The impact of Buddhist philosophy on Chinese literature, evident in the works of poets such as Wang Wei and Su Shi, who incorporated Buddhist themes and imagery into their writings
• The role of Buddhist monasteries as centers of learning, preserving and disseminating knowledge in fields such as medicine, astronomy, and mathematics
• The influence of Buddhist vegetarianism on Chinese cuisine, with the development of meat-free dishes and the use of tofu as a protein source
• The contribution of Buddhist translations to the development of the Chinese writing system, with the creation of new characters and the adaptation of existing ones to convey Buddhist concepts
• The impact of Buddhist art on Chinese aesthetic sensibilities, emphasizing simplicity, harmony, and the expression of inner states through external forms
• The influence of Buddhist meditation practices on Chinese martial arts, with the incorporation of mindfulness and breath control techniques into training regimens

Famous Works and Sites

• The Leshan Giant Buddha, a 71-meter tall stone statue carved into a cliff face in Sichuan province during the Tang dynasty, representing Maitreya, the future Buddha
• The Fengxian Temple at the Longmen Grottoes, housing the Vairocana Buddha, a 17-meter tall limestone statue commissioned by Empress Wu Zetian in the 7th century CE
• The Mogao Caves in Dunhuang, a complex of 492 cave temples dating from the 4th to the 14th centuries CE, containing an extensive collection of Buddhist wall paintings and sculptures
• The Yungang Grottoes in Shanxi province, a series of 252 cave temples carved into a sandstone cliff during the 5th and 6th centuries CE, showcasing the influence of Indian Gupta art on early Chinese Buddhist sculpture
• The White Horse Temple in Luoyang, the first Buddhist temple in China, established in 68 CE during the Han dynasty, symbolizing the official introduction of Buddhism to the country
• The Giant Wild Goose Pagoda in Xi'an, a 7th-century CE brick pagoda built to house the Buddhist scriptures brought back from India by the monk Xuanzang
• The Thousand Buddha Caves at Bezeklik in Xinjiang, a complex of 77 rock-cut caves dating from the 5th to 14th centuries CE, showcasing the unique blend of Chinese, Indian, and Central Asian artistic styles in the region

Legacy and Modern Interpretations

• The continued influence of Mahayana Buddhism on Chinese culture, evident in the popularity of Buddhist festivals, such as the Birthday of Guanyin and the Ghost Festival
• The revival of Buddhist art production in the 20th century, with the creation of new sculptures, paintings, and calligraphy works inspired by traditional styles
• The restoration and preservation of ancient Buddhist sites, such as the Mogao Caves and the Longmen Grottoes, as national and international cultural heritage sites
• The use of Buddhist imagery and symbolism in contemporary Chinese art, such as the works of Xu Bing and Zhang Huan, who reinterpret traditional motifs in a modern context
• The influence of Chinese Buddhist art on the artistic traditions of neighboring countries, such as Japan, Korea, and Vietnam, through cultural exchange and the spread of Mahayana Buddhism
• The global appreciation of Chinese Buddhist art, with major exhibitions and collections in museums around the world, showcasing the richness and diversity of this artistic heritage
• The ongoing academic study of Chinese Buddhist art, with scholars exploring its historical, cultural, and religious significance, as well as its relationship to other artistic traditions within and beyond China