Biological Anthropology

🦍Biological Anthropology Unit 9 – Human Biology and Health

Human biology and health is a fascinating field that explores the intricate workings of our bodies. From cells to systems, it covers how we function, grow, and fight disease. This knowledge helps us understand ourselves and improve our well-being. Genetics, nutrition, and environmental factors all play crucial roles in shaping our health. By studying these areas, we gain insights into disease prevention, treatment, and the complex interplay between our biology and the world around us.

Key Concepts and Terminology

  • Anatomy studies the structure of the human body and its parts
  • Physiology focuses on the functions and processes of the body and its systems
  • Genetics is the study of heredity and the transmission of traits from parents to offspring
  • Homeostasis maintains a stable internal environment in the body despite external changes
  • Metabolism encompasses all chemical reactions in the body that convert food into energy and building blocks for growth and repair
  • Immunity protects the body against infectious agents and foreign substances
  • Anthropometry involves measuring and analyzing human body dimensions and proportions
  • Epidemiology investigates the distribution, determinants, and control of health-related states or events in populations

Human Anatomy Basics

  • The human body is organized into levels of increasing complexity: cells, tissues, organs, and systems
  • Cells are the basic structural and functional units of life
    • Specialized cells perform specific functions (neurons transmit nerve impulses, muscle cells contract)
  • Tissues are groups of similar cells that work together to perform a specific function
    • There are four main types of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous
  • Organs are structures composed of two or more tissue types that perform a specific function (heart pumps blood, lungs facilitate gas exchange)
  • Systems are groups of organs that work together to perform a complex function (digestive system breaks down food, circulatory system transports nutrients and oxygen)
  • The skeletal system provides structure, support, and protection for the body
    • Consists of bones, cartilage, and ligaments
  • The muscular system enables movement, maintains posture, and generates heat
    • Includes skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle tissues

Physiology and Body Systems

  • The circulatory system transports nutrients, oxygen, and waste products throughout the body
    • Consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood
    • The heart pumps blood through a network of arteries, capillaries, and veins
  • The respiratory system facilitates gas exchange between the body and the environment
    • Includes the lungs, trachea, and diaphragm
    • Oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide is expelled during breathing
  • The digestive system breaks down food into nutrients that can be absorbed and used by the body
    • Consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and accessory organs (liver, pancreas, gallbladder)
  • The nervous system coordinates and controls body functions and responds to internal and external stimuli
    • Includes the brain, spinal cord, and a network of nerves
    • Neurons transmit electrical and chemical signals to process information and generate responses
  • The endocrine system regulates body processes through the production and secretion of hormones
    • Glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to target specific organs and tissues (thyroid gland regulates metabolism, adrenal glands produce stress hormones)
  • The immune system defends the body against infectious agents and foreign substances
    • Consists of white blood cells, antibodies, and lymphatic organs (spleen, lymph nodes, thymus)
  • The reproductive system enables the production of offspring and the continuation of the species
    • Male reproductive system includes the testes, penis, and prostate gland
    • Female reproductive system includes the ovaries, uterus, and mammary glands

Genetics and Inheritance

  • Genes are segments of DNA that code for specific traits or characteristics
    • Alleles are alternative forms of a gene that can result in different phenotypes (eye color, blood type)
  • Chromosomes are structures in the cell nucleus that contain DNA and genes
    • Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 total), with one set inherited from each parent
  • Mendelian inheritance describes the transmission of traits controlled by single genes
    • Dominant alleles mask the expression of recessive alleles (brown eyes are dominant over blue eyes)
    • Punnett squares predict the probability of offspring inheriting specific traits based on parental genotypes
  • Non-Mendelian inheritance involves traits controlled by multiple genes or influenced by environmental factors
    • Polygenic traits are determined by the combined effects of multiple genes (height, skin color)
    • Epigenetic modifications can alter gene expression without changing the underlying DNA sequence (DNA methylation, histone modifications)
  • Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence that can lead to variations in traits or genetic disorders
    • Point mutations involve changes in a single nucleotide (sickle cell anemia)
    • Chromosomal mutations involve larger-scale changes (Down syndrome, caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21)
  • Genetic disorders can be inherited or arise from de novo mutations
    • Single-gene disorders follow Mendelian inheritance patterns (cystic fibrosis, Huntington's disease)
    • Chromosomal disorders result from changes in chromosome number or structure (Turner syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome)

Human Growth and Development

  • Prenatal development occurs from conception to birth and is divided into three stages: germinal, embryonic, and fetal
    • The germinal stage involves the formation and implantation of the zygote in the uterus
    • The embryonic stage is characterized by the development of major organ systems
    • The fetal stage is marked by rapid growth and maturation of organs and tissues
  • Infancy and childhood are periods of rapid physical, cognitive, and social development
    • Motor skills develop in a predictable sequence (rolling over, sitting, crawling, walking)
    • Language acquisition progresses from babbling to single words to complex sentences
  • Adolescence is a transitional period between childhood and adulthood characterized by puberty and sexual maturation
    • Hormonal changes lead to the development of secondary sexual characteristics (breast development, facial hair growth)
    • Cognitive development involves the maturation of abstract thinking and moral reasoning
  • Adulthood is marked by the completion of physical growth and the achievement of sexual maturity
    • Early adulthood focuses on establishing identity, forming relationships, and pursuing education and career goals
    • Middle adulthood is characterized by a focus on family, work, and community responsibilities
    • Late adulthood involves adaptation to physical and cognitive changes and a reflection on life experiences
  • Senescence refers to the gradual deterioration of physiological functions with age
    • Age-related changes include decreased muscle mass, bone density, and sensory acuity
    • Cognitive changes may include declines in processing speed and working memory

Nutrition and Metabolism

  • Nutrients are substances in food that are essential for growth, development, and maintenance of health
    • Macronutrients provide energy and include carbohydrates, proteins, and fats
    • Micronutrients are required in smaller amounts and include vitamins and minerals
  • Carbohydrates are the primary source of energy for the body
    • Simple carbohydrates include sugars (glucose, fructose) and are found in fruits, vegetables, and processed foods
    • Complex carbohydrates include starches and fibers and are found in whole grains, legumes, and vegetables
  • Proteins are essential for building and repairing tissues and for the production of enzymes and hormones
    • Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins and can be classified as essential or non-essential
    • Complete proteins contain all essential amino acids (animal products, soy, quinoa)
  • Fats provide energy, insulation, and protection for organs
    • Saturated fats are solid at room temperature and are found in animal products and tropical oils
    • Unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature and are found in plant-based oils, nuts, and seeds
  • Vitamins are organic compounds that are essential for specific bodily functions
    • Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) are stored in the body and can accumulate to toxic levels
    • Water-soluble vitamins (B-complex, C) are not stored and must be consumed regularly
  • Minerals are inorganic elements that are essential for various physiological processes
    • Macrominerals are required in larger amounts (calcium, phosphorus, magnesium)
    • Trace minerals are required in smaller amounts (iron, zinc, iodine)
  • Metabolism refers to all chemical reactions in the body that convert food into energy and building blocks for growth and repair
    • Anabolism involves the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones (protein synthesis, glycogen storage)
    • Catabolism involves the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones (glycolysis, fatty acid oxidation)

Disease and Immunity

  • Infectious diseases are caused by pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites
    • Transmission can occur through direct contact, respiratory droplets, contaminated food or water, or vectors (mosquitoes, ticks)
    • Examples include influenza, HIV/AIDS, malaria, and COVID-19
  • Non-communicable diseases are not caused by infectious agents and are often related to lifestyle factors or genetics
    • Cardiovascular diseases affect the heart and blood vessels (coronary artery disease, stroke)
    • Cancer is characterized by the uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells
    • Diabetes is a metabolic disorder characterized by high blood sugar levels
  • The immune system defends the body against infectious agents and foreign substances
    • Innate immunity provides non-specific, rapid responses (skin barrier, inflammatory response)
    • Adaptive immunity provides specific, targeted responses and develops memory (antibodies, T cells)
  • Vaccines stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies against specific pathogens
    • Attenuated vaccines contain weakened forms of the pathogen (measles, mumps, rubella)
    • Inactivated vaccines contain killed forms of the pathogen (polio, hepatitis A)
  • Antibiotics are medications that kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria
    • Overuse or misuse of antibiotics can lead to the development of antibiotic-resistant strains
    • Antibiotic resistance is a growing public health concern that requires judicious use and the development of new antibiotics
  • Epidemiology is the study of the distribution, determinants, and control of health-related states or events in populations
    • Incidence refers to the number of new cases of a disease in a population over a specified time period
    • Prevalence refers to the total number of cases of a disease in a population at a specific point in time

Environmental Influences on Human Health

  • Environmental factors can have significant impacts on human health and disease risk
    • Air pollution is associated with respiratory and cardiovascular diseases (asthma, lung cancer, heart disease)
    • Water pollution can lead to waterborne illnesses (cholera, dysentery) and exposure to toxic substances (lead, mercury)
  • Climate change is expected to have wide-ranging effects on human health
    • Extreme weather events (heatwaves, floods, hurricanes) can cause injury, displacement, and mental health issues
    • Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns can alter the distribution of vector-borne diseases (malaria, dengue fever)
  • Urbanization and population density can influence the spread of infectious diseases
    • Close living quarters and shared public spaces facilitate the transmission of respiratory infections (influenza, tuberculosis)
    • Inadequate sanitation and hygiene in urban slums can lead to the spread of enteric diseases (cholera, typhoid fever)
  • Occupational exposures can contribute to the development of specific health conditions
    • Exposure to hazardous chemicals (pesticides, solvents) can increase the risk of cancer and neurological disorders
    • Repetitive motions and awkward postures can lead to musculoskeletal disorders (carpal tunnel syndrome, back pain)
  • Socioeconomic factors can influence access to healthcare, nutrition, and education, which in turn affect health outcomes
    • Poverty is associated with higher rates of chronic diseases, infectious diseases, and infant mortality
    • Social support networks and community engagement can promote mental health and resilience

Evolutionary Perspectives on Human Biology

  • Evolutionary medicine applies evolutionary principles to understand the origins and persistence of human diseases
    • Many diseases are thought to result from mismatches between our evolutionary past and modern environments (obesity, type 2 diabetes)
    • Some genetic disorders may persist because they confer advantages in specific environments (sickle cell anemia and malaria resistance)
  • Natural selection has shaped human physiology and behavior over millions of years
    • Adaptations that improved survival and reproduction in ancestral environments may not be optimal in modern contexts (preference for high-calorie foods)
    • Sexual selection has influenced the evolution of physical and behavioral traits that enhance reproductive success (male musculature, female waist-to-hip ratio)
  • Comparative studies of human and non-human primates can provide insights into the evolution of human biology and behavior
    • Shared anatomical and physiological features reflect common evolutionary origins (opposable thumbs, color vision)
    • Differences in social structure and mating systems can shed light on the evolution of human pair-bonding and parental care
  • The human microbiome, the collection of microorganisms that inhabit the human body, has co-evolved with humans over time
    • The gut microbiome plays a crucial role in digestion, immune function, and metabolism
    • Disruptions to the microbiome (dysbiosis) have been linked to various health conditions (inflammatory bowel disease, obesity)
  • Epigenetic modifications, which alter gene expression without changing the underlying DNA sequence, can be influenced by environmental factors and may be heritable
    • Maternal nutrition and stress during pregnancy can affect the epigenome of the developing fetus, with potential long-term health consequences
    • Epigenetic changes may contribute to the intergenerational transmission of disease risk and the adaptation to changing environments


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© 2024 Fiveable Inc. All rights reserved.
AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.