🦍Biological Anthropology Unit 9 – Human Biology and Health
Human biology and health is a fascinating field that explores the intricate workings of our bodies. From cells to systems, it covers how we function, grow, and fight disease. This knowledge helps us understand ourselves and improve our well-being.
Genetics, nutrition, and environmental factors all play crucial roles in shaping our health. By studying these areas, we gain insights into disease prevention, treatment, and the complex interplay between our biology and the world around us.
Tissues are groups of similar cells that work together to perform a specific function
There are four main types of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous
Organs are structures composed of two or more tissue types that perform a specific function (heart pumps blood, lungs facilitate gas exchange)
Systems are groups of organs that work together to perform a complex function (digestive system breaks down food, circulatory system transports nutrients and oxygen)
The skeletal system provides structure, support, and protection for the body
Consists of bones, cartilage, and ligaments
The muscular system enables movement, maintains posture, and generates heat
Includes skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle tissues
Physiology and Body Systems
The circulatory system transports nutrients, oxygen, and waste products throughout the body
Consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood
The heart pumps blood through a network of arteries, capillaries, and veins
The respiratory system facilitates gas exchange between the body and the environment
Includes the lungs, trachea, and diaphragm
Oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide is expelled during breathing
The digestive system breaks down food into nutrients that can be absorbed and used by the body
Consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and accessory organs (liver, pancreas, gallbladder)
The nervous system coordinates and controls body functions and responds to internal and external stimuli
Includes the brain, spinal cord, and a network of nerves
Neurons transmit electrical and chemical signals to process information and generate responses
The endocrine system regulates body processes through the production and secretion of hormones
Glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to target specific organs and tissues (thyroid gland regulates metabolism, adrenal glands produce stress hormones)
The immune system defends the body against infectious agents and foreign substances
Consists of white blood cells, antibodies, and lymphatic organs (spleen, lymph nodes, thymus)
The reproductive system enables the production of offspring and the continuation of the species
Male reproductive system includes the testes, penis, and prostate gland
Female reproductive system includes the ovaries, uterus, and mammary glands
Genetics and Inheritance
Genes are segments of DNA that code for specific traits or characteristics
Alleles are alternative forms of a gene that can result in different phenotypes (eye color, blood type)
Chromosomes are structures in the cell nucleus that contain DNA and genes
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 total), with one set inherited from each parent
Mendelian inheritance describes the transmission of traits controlled by single genes
Dominant alleles mask the expression of recessive alleles (brown eyes are dominant over blue eyes)
Punnett squares predict the probability of offspring inheriting specific traits based on parental genotypes
Non-Mendelian inheritance involves traits controlled by multiple genes or influenced by environmental factors
Polygenic traits are determined by the combined effects of multiple genes (height, skin color)
Epigenetic modifications can alter gene expression without changing the underlying DNA sequence (DNA methylation, histone modifications)
Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence that can lead to variations in traits or genetic disorders
Point mutations involve changes in a single nucleotide (sickle cell anemia)
Chromosomal mutations involve larger-scale changes (Down syndrome, caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21)
Genetic disorders can be inherited or arise from de novo mutations
Adaptive immunity provides specific, targeted responses and develops memory (antibodies, T cells)
Vaccines stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies against specific pathogens
Attenuated vaccines contain weakened forms of the pathogen (measles, mumps, rubella)
Inactivated vaccines contain killed forms of the pathogen (polio, hepatitis A)
Antibiotics are medications that kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria
Overuse or misuse of antibiotics can lead to the development of antibiotic-resistant strains
Antibiotic resistance is a growing public health concern that requires judicious use and the development of new antibiotics
Epidemiology is the study of the distribution, determinants, and control of health-related states or events in populations
Incidence refers to the number of new cases of a disease in a population over a specified time period
Prevalence refers to the total number of cases of a disease in a population at a specific point in time
Environmental Influences on Human Health
Environmental factors can have significant impacts on human health and disease risk
Air pollution is associated with respiratory and cardiovascular diseases (asthma, lung cancer, heart disease)
Water pollution can lead to waterborne illnesses (cholera, dysentery) and exposure to toxic substances (lead, mercury)
Climate change is expected to have wide-ranging effects on human health
Extreme weather events (heatwaves, floods, hurricanes) can cause injury, displacement, and mental health issues
Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns can alter the distribution of vector-borne diseases (malaria, dengue fever)
Urbanization and population density can influence the spread of infectious diseases
Close living quarters and shared public spaces facilitate the transmission of respiratory infections (influenza, tuberculosis)
Inadequate sanitation and hygiene in urban slums can lead to the spread of enteric diseases (cholera, typhoid fever)
Occupational exposures can contribute to the development of specific health conditions
Exposure to hazardous chemicals (pesticides, solvents) can increase the risk of cancer and neurological disorders
Repetitive motions and awkward postures can lead to musculoskeletal disorders (carpal tunnel syndrome, back pain)
Socioeconomic factors can influence access to healthcare, nutrition, and education, which in turn affect health outcomes
Poverty is associated with higher rates of chronic diseases, infectious diseases, and infant mortality
Social support networks and community engagement can promote mental health and resilience
Evolutionary Perspectives on Human Biology
Evolutionary medicine applies evolutionary principles to understand the origins and persistence of human diseases
Many diseases are thought to result from mismatches between our evolutionary past and modern environments (obesity, type 2 diabetes)
Some genetic disorders may persist because they confer advantages in specific environments (sickle cell anemia and malaria resistance)
Natural selection has shaped human physiology and behavior over millions of years
Adaptations that improved survival and reproduction in ancestral environments may not be optimal in modern contexts (preference for high-calorie foods)
Sexual selection has influenced the evolution of physical and behavioral traits that enhance reproductive success (male musculature, female waist-to-hip ratio)
Comparative studies of human and non-human primates can provide insights into the evolution of human biology and behavior
Shared anatomical and physiological features reflect common evolutionary origins (opposable thumbs, color vision)
Differences in social structure and mating systems can shed light on the evolution of human pair-bonding and parental care
The human microbiome, the collection of microorganisms that inhabit the human body, has co-evolved with humans over time
The gut microbiome plays a crucial role in digestion, immune function, and metabolism
Disruptions to the microbiome (dysbiosis) have been linked to various health conditions (inflammatory bowel disease, obesity)
Epigenetic modifications, which alter gene expression without changing the underlying DNA sequence, can be influenced by environmental factors and may be heritable
Maternal nutrition and stress during pregnancy can affect the epigenome of the developing fetus, with potential long-term health consequences
Epigenetic changes may contribute to the intergenerational transmission of disease risk and the adaptation to changing environments