🎎Arts of East Asia Unit 8 – Japanese Art: Kamakura & Muromachi Eras

Historical Context

• The Kamakura period (1185-1333) marked the rise of the warrior class and the establishment of the first shogunate under Minamoto no Yoritomo
• Followed by the Muromachi period (1336-1573) which saw the ascendancy of the Ashikaga shogunate and a flourishing of arts and culture
• Both periods witnessed political instability, civil wars (such as the Genpei War and the Nanboku-chō period), and the decline of the imperial court's power
• The Kamakura period saw the repulsion of Mongol invasions (1274 and 1281) which had a significant impact on Japanese society and culture
• The Muromachi period was characterized by the development of the feudal system, the rise of powerful regional warlords (daimyō), and the increasing influence of Zen Buddhism
  • Zen Buddhism, introduced from China, gained popularity among the warrior class and had a profound impact on art, literature, and aesthetics
• The era also saw the growth of trade and cultural exchange with China, particularly during the Ming dynasty (1368-1644)
• The later part of the Muromachi period was marked by the Ōnin War (1467-1477) which led to the Sengoku period (1467-1615), a time of political fragmentation and constant warfare

Key Artistic Movements

• The Kamakura period saw the emergence of a more realistic and expressive style in sculpture and painting, moving away from the idealized forms of the earlier Heian period (794-1185)
  • This new style is exemplified in the sculptures of the Kei school, such as the famous portrait statues of Unkei and Kaikei
• The Muromachi period witnessed the development of ink painting (suibokuga) under the influence of Zen Buddhism and Chinese literati painting
  • Ink painting emphasized simplicity, spontaneity, and the capture of the essence of the subject matter through minimal brushstrokes
• The period also saw the rise of the Kanō school of painting, which combined Chinese-inspired ink painting techniques with Japanese yamato-e traditions
  • The Kanō school became the dominant style of painting in Japan and served the Ashikaga shogunate and regional warlords
• Other notable artistic developments include the tea ceremony (chadō), flower arrangement (ikebana), and Noh theater, all of which were heavily influenced by Zen aesthetics
• The Muromachi period also saw the emergence of the Rinpa school, known for its bold and decorative style, and the development of the Namban art style, influenced by the arrival of European traders and missionaries in the 16th century

Famous Artists and Works

• Unkei (c. 1150-1223): A renowned sculptor of the Kei school, known for his realistic and expressive portrait statues, such as the Dainichi Nyorai at Enjō-ji temple and the Kongō Rikishi at Tōdai-ji temple
• Kaikei (c. 1183-1236): Another prominent sculptor of the Kei school, famous for his sculptures of Buddhist deities and guardian figures, such as the Hachiman in the guise of a monk at Tōdai-ji temple
• Sesshū Tōyō (1420-1506): A prominent ink painter and Zen monk who studied in China and greatly influenced the development of Japanese ink painting; his famous works include "Landscape of the Four Seasons" and "Splashed-Ink Landscape"
• Kanō Masanobu (1434-1530): The founder of the Kanō school of painting, known for his Chinese-inspired ink landscapes and his service as the official painter of the Ashikaga shogunate
• Kanō Motonobu (1476-1559): Son of Kanō Masanobu and a key figure in the development of the Kanō school; famous for his large-scale, brightly colored screen paintings and his "Flowers and Birds of the Four Seasons" at Daisen-in temple
• Tenshō Shūbun (c. 1414-1463): A Zen monk and ink painter who pioneered the use of asymmetrical composition and the "one-corner" style; his famous works include "Reading in a Bamboo Grove" and "Landscape with Pavilions"

Techniques and Materials

• Sculpture: The Kamakura period saw the use of wood, particularly Japanese cypress (hinoki), as the primary material for sculpture; artists employed techniques such as joined-woodblock construction (yosegi-zukuri) and the use of crystal eyes (gyokugan) to create realistic effects
  • The period also witnessed the development of the "single-woodblock construction" technique (ichiboku-zukuri), where sculptures were carved from a single block of wood
• Painting: The Muromachi period saw the widespread use of ink as the primary medium for painting, often on paper or silk scrolls; artists employed various techniques such as graduated ink washes (suibokuga), splashed-ink (hatsuboku), and the use of negative space to create atmospheric effects
  • Painters also used color pigments, gold leaf, and silver leaf to enhance their compositions, particularly in the Kanō school and the Rinpa school
• Calligraphy: The Muromachi period saw the development of distinctive calligraphic styles, such as the "one-line" style (ichigyo-shiki) and the "cursive" style (sōsho), which were often incorporated into ink paintings and scrolls
• Ceramics: The period witnessed the development of various ceramic styles, such as the Seto ware, Mino ware, and Oribe ware, which were influenced by the tea ceremony and Zen aesthetics; potters employed techniques such as ash glazing, copper glazing, and iron glazing to create unique textures and colors
• Lacquerware: The Muromachi period saw the refinement of lacquerware techniques, such as the use of gold and silver powder (makie) to create intricate decorative designs on the surface of lacquered objects, which were often used in the tea ceremony and as diplomatic gifts

Religious and Cultural Influences

• Buddhism, particularly Zen Buddhism, had a profound influence on the arts of the Kamakura and Muromachi periods; Zen concepts such as simplicity, spontaneity, and the acceptance of imperfection (wabi-sabi) shaped the aesthetic sensibilities of the time
  • Zen monasteries became important centers of artistic production, patronage, and cultural exchange, fostering the development of ink painting, calligraphy, and the tea ceremony
• Shinto, the indigenous religion of Japan, also influenced the arts, particularly in the form of shrine architecture and the creation of votive offerings, such as bronze mirrors and swords
• Confucianism, which emphasized loyalty, filial piety, and the importance of education, had an impact on the warrior class and the development of the bushidō code of conduct
• The rise of the warrior class and the feudal system led to the emergence of a distinctive samurai culture, which valued martial prowess, loyalty, and cultural refinement; this culture influenced the development of art forms such as Noh theater, tea ceremony, and ink painting
• The increasing trade and cultural exchange with China, particularly during the Muromachi period, exposed Japanese artists to new ideas, techniques, and styles, which they adapted and incorporated into their own artistic traditions
  • The arrival of European traders and missionaries in the 16th century also introduced new artistic influences, such as linear perspective and oil painting techniques, which can be seen in the development of the Namban art style

Comparison with Earlier Periods

• The Kamakura period marked a significant shift from the idealized and courtly styles of the earlier Heian period (794-1185) towards a more realistic and expressive approach in sculpture and painting
  • Kamakura-period sculptures, such as those of the Kei school, depicted figures with greater anatomical accuracy, individuality, and emotional intensity compared to the more stylized and ethereal forms of the Heian period
• The Muromachi period saw the emergence of ink painting as a dominant artistic medium, in contrast to the colorful yamato-e style of narrative handscrolls and screen paintings that characterized the Heian period
  • Ink painting, influenced by Zen Buddhism and Chinese literati painting, emphasized simplicity, spontaneity, and the capture of the essence of the subject matter, rather than the detailed and decorative approach of earlier periods
• The Kamakura and Muromachi periods witnessed the rise of the warrior class and the decline of the imperial court's power, leading to a shift in artistic patronage and the emergence of new cultural values and aesthetics
  • The arts of these periods reflected the tastes and interests of the samurai class, such as the emphasis on Zen Buddhism, martial prowess, and cultural refinement, in contrast to the courtly and aristocratic themes of the Heian period
• The Muromachi period saw the development of new art forms and cultural practices, such as the tea ceremony, Noh theater, and ikebana, which were heavily influenced by Zen aesthetics and the increasing cultural exchange with China
  • These art forms represented a departure from the earlier Heian-period focus on poetry, calligraphy, and court music (gagaku) as the primary means of artistic expression and social interaction

Legacy and Impact

• The artistic achievements of the Kamakura and Muromachi periods had a lasting impact on Japanese art and culture, setting the stage for the development of later artistic traditions and styles
  • The realistic and expressive style of Kamakura-period sculpture influenced the development of later sculptural traditions, such as the wood-carved sculptures of the Edo period (1603-1868)
• The ink painting tradition established during the Muromachi period continued to evolve and flourish in later periods, particularly in the Edo period, with the emergence of new schools and styles, such as the Nanga school and the Maruyama-Shijō school
  • The Kanō school, which originated in the Muromachi period, remained a dominant force in Japanese painting well into the Edo period, serving as official painters to the Tokugawa shogunate
• The cultural practices and art forms developed during the Muromachi period, such as the tea ceremony, Noh theater, and ikebana, became integral parts of Japanese cultural heritage and continue to be practiced and appreciated to this day
  • These art forms have also gained international recognition and have influenced artists and enthusiasts around the world
• The Zen aesthetic principles that emerged during the Kamakura and Muromachi periods, such as simplicity, asymmetry, and the appreciation of imperfection, have had a profound and lasting impact on Japanese art, design, and philosophy
  • These principles have also influenced Western art and design, particularly in the development of modernist and minimalist movements in the 20th century
• The artistic legacy of the Kamakura and Muromachi periods has been preserved and celebrated through the conservation and display of artworks in museums, temples, and shrines throughout Japan and the world
  • The study and appreciation of these periods continue to inspire new generations of artists, scholars, and enthusiasts, ensuring the enduring relevance and significance of this rich artistic heritage

Fun Facts and Trivia

• The famous Zen garden at Ryōan-ji temple in Kyoto, known for its simple arrangement of rocks and raked gravel, is believed to have been created during the Muromachi period, although its exact date of origin is unknown
• The tea master Sen no Rikyū (1522-1591), who is credited with establishing the foundations of the Japanese tea ceremony (chadō), served as the tea master to the powerful warlords Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi during the late Muromachi period
• The Muromachi period saw the development of the "Higashiyama culture," named after the Higashiyama district of Kyoto, which was a center of artistic and cultural activity under the patronage of the Ashikaga shogunate
  • The Higashiyama culture was characterized by the refinement of Zen-influenced arts, such as ink painting, calligraphy, and the tea ceremony
• The famous Zen monk and ink painter Sesshū Tōyō (1420-1506) is said to have been so dedicated to his art that he once painted a mouse with his tears when he ran out of ink while studying in China
• The Kamakura period witnessed the creation of the famous "Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga" (Scrolls of Frolicking Animals and Humans), a set of four handscrolls featuring humorous and satirical depictions of anthropomorphized animals engaged in human activities
  • These scrolls are considered masterpieces of early manga (Japanese comics) and demonstrate the wit and creativity of Kamakura-period artists
• The Muromachi period saw the emergence of the "Kano inu" (Kanō dog), a distinctive style of depicting dogs in ink painting, characterized by their curly tails and lively expressions
  • This style is believed to have originated with the Kanō school painter Kanō Motonobu (1476-1559) and became a popular motif in Japanese art
• The Noh play "Aoi no Ue," which tells the story of the ill-fated love between Prince Genji and Lady Aoi, is believed to have been written by the Muromachi-period playwright and actor Zeami Motokiyo (c. 1363-c. 1443), who is considered the father of Noh theater
• The Muromachi period also saw the development of the "Fūzoku-ga" (genre painting) style, which depicted scenes from everyday life, such as street vendors, entertainers, and commoners
  • These paintings provide valuable insights into the social and cultural life of the time and demonstrate the increasing interest in the lives of ordinary people during the Muromachi period