🏛️Archaeology of Post-Colonial America Unit 6 – Resistance and Negotiation in Colonial America

Key Concepts and Terminology

• Colonialism involves the establishment of political, economic, and cultural control over another territory or group of people
• Resistance encompasses actions taken by indigenous populations to oppose, challenge, or subvert colonial power structures
• Negotiation refers to the process of communication and compromise between colonial powers and indigenous groups to reach agreements or resolve conflicts
• Material culture consists of the physical objects and artifacts produced by a society, which can provide insights into their lives, beliefs, and interactions
• Archaeological evidence includes the physical remains and artifacts uncovered through excavations and surveys, helping to reconstruct past events and cultures
  • Includes artifacts (tools, weapons, pottery), features (buildings, fortifications), and ecofacts (plant remains, animal bones)
• Acculturation describes the process of cultural change and adaptation that occurs when different cultures come into prolonged contact
• Syncretism involves the blending of elements from different cultures to create new, hybrid forms of cultural expression (religious beliefs, art styles)

Historical Context and Timeline

• European colonization of the Americas began in the late 15th century following Christopher Columbus' voyages to the New World in 1492
• Spanish colonization focused on Central and South America, establishing the Viceroyalty of New Spain (Mexico) and Peru
• English colonization concentrated on North America, with the establishment of Jamestown in 1607 and Plymouth Colony in 1620
• French colonization efforts included the establishment of New France in present-day Canada and Louisiana
• Dutch colonization centered on the Hudson River Valley and the establishment of New Netherland (New York)
• The Columbian Exchange involved the transfer of goods, crops, animals, and diseases between the Old World and New World, significantly impacting both societies
• Colonial period in the Americas lasted from the late 15th century until the late 18th and early 19th centuries, when many colonies gained independence through revolutions (American Revolution, Haitian Revolution, Latin American Wars of Independence)

Colonial Power Structures

• Colonial governments were established to maintain control over the colonies and enforce the policies of the mother country
  • Included governors, councils, and local officials appointed by the crown or colonial proprietors
• Economic systems in the colonies were designed to benefit the mother country through mercantilism, which focused on exporting raw materials and importing manufactured goods
• Labor systems in the colonies included indentured servitude, slavery, and the exploitation of indigenous labor
  • Transatlantic slave trade brought millions of Africans to the Americas to work on plantations and in mines
• Religious institutions, particularly the Catholic Church in Spanish and French colonies, played a significant role in the colonization process and the conversion of indigenous populations
• Social hierarchies in the colonies were based on race, class, and gender, with European men at the top and indigenous peoples and enslaved Africans at the bottom
• Land ownership and control were central to colonial power, with Europeans claiming vast territories and displacing indigenous populations

Indigenous Resistance Strategies

• Armed resistance involved direct military confrontation with colonial forces, often in response to land encroachment, forced labor, or cultural suppression
  • Pueblo Revolt of 1680 in New Mexico against Spanish colonizers
  • Mapuche resistance against Spanish in Chile and Argentina
• Guerrilla warfare tactics were employed by indigenous groups to strike at colonial targets and then retreat to safe havens
• Cultural resistance involved the preservation and continuation of traditional practices, beliefs, and languages in the face of colonial pressures
  • Maintenance of traditional religious ceremonies and rituals
  • Use of native languages in daily life and in interactions with colonizers
• Economic resistance included the refusal to participate in colonial labor systems, the development of alternative trade networks, and the sabotage of colonial production
• Alliances and confederations were formed among indigenous groups to pool resources and coordinate resistance efforts
  • Iroquois Confederacy in northeastern North America
  • Tecumseh's Confederacy in the Ohio River Valley
• Adaptation and selective adoption of colonial technologies and practices were used to strengthen indigenous societies and resist colonial domination
  • Adoption of horses and firearms by Plains Indians
  • Incorporation of European crops and livestock into indigenous agricultural systems

Negotiation Tactics and Diplomacy

• Treaty-making was a common form of negotiation between colonial powers and indigenous groups, often used to establish boundaries, trade relationships, and military alliances
  • Treaties of Utrecht (1713) between European powers and Iroquois Confederacy
  • Treaty of Waitangi (1840) between British and Maori in New Zealand
• Gift-giving and ceremonial exchanges were used to establish and maintain diplomatic relationships between colonial officials and indigenous leaders
• Mediation and arbitration by neutral parties, such as religious figures or other indigenous groups, were sometimes employed to resolve conflicts
• Accommodation and compromise were necessary when neither side could achieve a clear victory, leading to the establishment of middle grounds and shared spaces
  • Métis communities in Canada, formed by the intermarriage of French fur traders and indigenous women
• Resistance through negotiation involved using diplomatic channels to advocate for indigenous rights, land claims, and cultural autonomy
  • Delegations sent by Cherokee and other Native American nations to negotiate with British and American governments
• Divide and conquer strategies were employed by colonial powers to pit indigenous groups against one another and weaken collective resistance
  • French support for Huron against Iroquois in the Beaver Wars of the 17th century

Material Culture and Archaeological Evidence

• Fortifications and defensive structures provide evidence of indigenous resistance and the militarization of colonial landscapes
  • Palisaded villages of the Iroquois in New York
  • Cliff dwellings of the Pueblo peoples in the American Southwest
• Weapons and military equipment, such as arrowheads, musket balls, and cannon shot, indicate the nature and intensity of armed conflicts
• Destruction layers and burned horizons in archaeological sites suggest episodes of violence and resistance
• Changes in settlement patterns, such as the aggregation of populations into larger, more defensible sites, reflect responses to colonial threats
• Hybrid material culture, combining indigenous and European elements, demonstrates the selective adoption and adaptation of foreign technologies and styles
  • Wampum belts incorporating European glass beads
  • Clothing and textiles blending native and European materials and designs
• Iconography and symbolism in art and material culture can convey messages of resistance, identity, and cultural continuity
  • Pueblo pottery depicting kachina figures and traditional motifs
  • Totem poles of the Pacific Northwest coast expressing family histories and territorial claims

Case Studies and Significant Events

• Pueblo Revolt of 1680 in New Mexico, where Pueblo Indians successfully expelled Spanish colonizers for 12 years
• King Philip's War (1675-1678) in New England, a major conflict between Native American tribes and English colonists
• Pontiac's War (1763-1766) in the Great Lakes region, a pan-Indian resistance movement against British colonial expansion after the Seven Years' War
• Haitian Revolution (1791-1804), a successful slave revolt that established the independent nation of Haiti
• Mapuche resistance against Spanish colonization in Chile and Argentina, spanning from the 16th to the late 19th centuries
• Ghost Dance movement of the late 19th century, a spiritual and political movement that spread among Native American tribes in the western United States
• Yaqui Wars (1533-1929) in Mexico, a series of conflicts between Yaqui Indians and Spanish and Mexican authorities over land, resources, and cultural autonomy

Legacy and Modern Implications

• Ongoing struggles for indigenous rights, land claims, and cultural preservation in post-colonial societies
  • Zapatista movement in Chiapas, Mexico
  • Idle No More movement in Canada
• Repatriation of indigenous cultural heritage and human remains from museums and collections
• Revitalization of indigenous languages, traditional knowledge systems, and cultural practices
• Acknowledgment of historical injustices and the lasting impacts of colonialism on indigenous communities
  • Formal apologies and truth and reconciliation commissions (Canada, Australia)
• Decolonization movements and the assertion of indigenous sovereignty and self-determination
  • Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007) by the United Nations
• Collaborative and community-based archaeological projects that engage indigenous communities in the interpretation and stewardship of their cultural heritage
• Incorporation of indigenous perspectives and knowledge into environmental management, land use planning, and resource development decisions
• Ongoing debates over the legacies of colonial figures, symbols, and place names in public spaces and historical narratives