🏛️Archaeology of Colonial America Unit 14 – Colonial Urban Centers: Archaeological Study

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Urban archaeology focuses on the study of cities and urban life through archaeological methods and techniques
• Colonial urban centers refer to cities and towns established by European colonial powers in the Americas during the colonial period (16th-19th centuries)
• Material culture encompasses the physical objects and artifacts created, used, and discarded by past societies
  • Includes ceramics, glassware, metal objects, and architectural remains
• Stratigraphy is the layering of archaeological deposits over time, with older layers typically found beneath more recent ones
• Artifact assemblages are groups of artifacts found together in a specific context or site
• Zooarchaeology is the study of animal remains from archaeological sites to understand past human-animal interactions and dietary practices
• Historical archaeology combines archaeological methods with historical records and documents to study the recent past

Historical Context of Colonial Urban Centers

• European colonization of the Americas began in the late 15th century following Christopher Columbus' voyages
• Colonial powers established settlements and cities to support their economic, political, and religious interests in the New World
  • Spanish colonization focused on Central and South America, as well as parts of the Caribbean and North America (Florida, New Mexico)
  • English colonization concentrated on the eastern coast of North America, establishing colonies such as Jamestown (1607) and Plymouth (1620)
  • French colonization efforts included settlements in present-day Canada (Quebec) and the Mississippi River Valley
• Colonial cities served as centers of administration, trade, and cultural exchange between European settlers and indigenous populations
• Urban development in colonial America was influenced by European urban planning principles and adapted to local environmental conditions
• Colonial cities often featured central plazas, grid-like street patterns, and defensive fortifications

Archaeological Methods for Urban Sites

• Excavation techniques in urban contexts require careful consideration of stratigraphy and the complex layering of deposits
• Archaeologists employ a combination of hand excavation and mechanical equipment to expose and document archaeological features and artifacts
• Stratigraphic excavation involves the systematic removal and recording of soil layers to understand the chronological sequence of the site
• Artifact recovery methods include screening excavated soil through mesh to collect small finds and using flotation to recover organic remains
• Geophysical survey techniques, such as ground-penetrating radar (GPR) and magnetometry, can help identify subsurface features and guide excavation strategies
• GIS (Geographic Information Systems) is used to create digital maps and analyze spatial relationships between archaeological features and artifacts
• Archaeologists collaborate with specialists from various fields, such as zooarchaeology, paleoethnobotany, and historical research, to gain a comprehensive understanding of the site

Material Culture and Artifacts

• Ceramics are among the most common artifacts found in colonial urban sites, providing information about trade, social status, and cultural influences
  • Types of ceramics include earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain
  • Ceramic analysis involves studying vessel forms, decorative techniques, and production methods
• Glass artifacts, such as bottles, window glass, and tableware, offer insights into daily life, trade, and technological advancements
• Metal artifacts, including nails, tools, and personal items (buttons, buckles), reflect the activities and industries present in colonial cities
• Faunal remains, such as animal bones and shells, provide information about diet, animal husbandry, and the exploitation of local resources
• Archaeobotanical remains, including seeds, pollen, and charcoal, offer insights into past plant use, agriculture, and the natural environment
• Historical documents, such as maps, deeds, and inventories, complement the archaeological record and help interpret the material culture

Urban Planning and Architecture

• Colonial urban centers often followed a grid-like street pattern, with a central plaza serving as the focal point of the city
  • The plaza was typically surrounded by important buildings, such as the church, government offices, and elite residences
• Defensive features, such as walls, gates, and fortifications, were common in early colonial cities to protect against attacks and regulate trade
• Residential areas were often segregated based on social class and occupation, with wealthier individuals living closer to the city center
• Colonial architecture incorporated European styles and building techniques, adapted to local materials and environmental conditions
  • Common building materials included wood, brick, stone, and adobe
• Public buildings, such as churches, government offices, and markets, served as important centers of social and economic activity
• Water management systems, including wells, cisterns, and drainage channels, were crucial for the functioning of colonial cities

Social Dynamics and Demographics

• Colonial urban centers were characterized by diverse populations, including European settlers, indigenous peoples, and enslaved Africans
• Social stratification was evident in the spatial organization of the city, with elite families residing in prominent locations and lower classes in peripheral areas
• Racial and ethnic segregation was common, with separate neighborhoods or districts for different groups
• Gender roles and divisions of labor were influenced by European cultural norms and adapted to the colonial context
  • Women played important roles in household management, child-rearing, and small-scale economic activities
• Religious institutions, particularly the Catholic Church in Spanish and French colonies, held significant influence over social and cultural life
• Education and literacy were primarily accessible to the upper classes, with limited opportunities for the lower classes and enslaved populations

Economic Activities and Trade

• Colonial cities functioned as centers of trade and commerce, connecting the colonies with European markets and facilitating the exchange of goods
• Port cities played a crucial role in maritime trade, serving as hubs for the import and export of commodities (sugar, tobacco, textiles)
• Craft production, such as blacksmithing, carpentry, and leatherworking, was essential for meeting the needs of the growing urban population
• Marketplaces and shops were important spaces for the exchange of goods and services, as well as social interaction
• Agricultural production in the surrounding hinterlands supplied food and raw materials to the urban centers
• Slave labor was a significant component of the colonial economy, particularly in plantation agriculture and urban domestic service
• Coinage and other forms of currency, such as bills of exchange and credit systems, facilitated economic transactions and the accumulation of wealth

Case Studies and Notable Excavations

• Jamestown, Virginia: Established in 1607, Jamestown was the first permanent English settlement in North America. Archaeological excavations have revealed insights into early colonial life, including the struggles of the early settlers and their interactions with the Powhatan people
• St. Augustine, Florida: Founded by the Spanish in 1565, St. Augustine is the oldest continuously inhabited European settlement in the United States. Archaeological investigations have uncovered the city's Spanish colonial heritage, including the Castillo de San Marcos fort and the Plaza de la Constitución
• New Amsterdam (New York City): Established by the Dutch in 1624, New Amsterdam served as a major port and trading center. Archaeological excavations have revealed the city's early infrastructure, including the original Dutch-built wall that gave Wall Street its name
• Quebec City, Canada: Founded by the French in 1608, Quebec City was the capital of New France and a key center of French colonial power in North America. Archaeological projects have investigated the city's fortifications, religious institutions, and domestic life
• Mexico City, Mexico: Built on the ruins of the Aztec city of Tenochtitlan, Mexico City was the capital of New Spain and a major center of Spanish colonial power. Archaeological excavations have uncovered the remains of the Aztec Templo Mayor and the Spanish-built Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral