10.4 Economic and social changes in the late Anglo-Saxon period
4 min readโขjuly 30, 2024
Late Anglo-Saxon England saw major economic shifts. Towns grew from defensive into , connecting England to wider networks. evolved with new farming techniques and changing land ownership patterns.
These changes reshaped society. disrupted life but led to . The gained power through land grants, while kings worked to maintain control. This period set the stage for post-Conquest developments.
Growth of Towns and Trade
Development of Towns from Burhs
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- In the late Anglo-Saxon period (9th-11th centuries), England experienced significant growth in towns and trade
- Many towns developed from fortified centers called burhs established by Alfred the Great and his successors to defend against Viking raids
- Over time, these burhs attracted tradesmen and craftsmen, becoming economic hubs
- Important trading towns included London, York, Winchester, Lincoln, Norwich, Ipswich and Thetford
- These towns were often located on rivers or the coast, facilitating trade
Expansion of Trade Networks
- England traded both internally and with other regions, including Scandinavia, the Rhineland, France and the Mediterranean
- Key exports included wool, cloth, hides, metal goods and slaves
- Imports included luxury goods like silk, wine, glass and precious metals
- The growth of towns and trade was facilitated by several factors:
- Relative political stability under later Anglo-Saxon kings
- Minting of standardized silver coinage which aided commerce
- Expansion of the road and river transport network
- Development of markets and trading wharves in towns
- The revival of trade and urbanism in the late Anglo-Saxon period foreshadowed the more extensive economic growth that occurred after the in the 11th century
Agricultural Changes and Land Ownership
Developments in Farming Practices
- The late Anglo-Saxon period saw the emergence of the of agriculture in many areas, particularly in the Midlands
- In this system, arable land was divided into unenclosed strips that were farmed by peasant households
- practices became more sophisticated, with the three-field system becoming increasingly common
- One field was planted with winter wheat, one with spring crops (barley or oats), and one left fallow each year, with the fields rotated annually
- The invention of the in the late 10th century enabled cultivation of heavier clay soils, expanding the area of arable land
- This plow required a team of oxen to pull it, encouraging communal plowing arrangements
Concentration of Land Ownership
- Land ownership became increasingly concentrated in the hands of the king, nobility and the church
- The granting of large estates to the king's followers, a process known as "," accelerated in this period
- developed as a system of estate management
- The lord's (private lands) were cultivated by who also worked on their own strips
- Peasants owed labor services and rents to their lords
- Towns were often founded on agricultural estates, with the lord taking a share of the trade and tolls
- Market grants from the king enabled many landowners to set up profitable town markets (Stamford, Bury St Edmunds)
Viking Raids and Settlements
Impacts of Viking Attacks
- Viking raids on England began in the late 8th century and intensified in the 9th
- Monasteries (Lindisfarne) and towns were primary targets due to their wealth
- The "Great Heathen Army" of Vikings invaded England in 865, leading to the fall of all the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms except Wessex
- The was established in northern and eastern England, where Danish law and customs prevailed
- Destruction caused by Viking attacks disrupted trade, agriculture and religious life
- Many monasteries were abandoned, towns were sacked (London), and coinage and crafts declined in quality
Integration and Revival
- Once settled, the Danes contributed to a revival of trade and urbanism
- Towns like York and Lincoln flourished as Viking trading centers, and minting of coins resumed
- Interaction between Anglo-Saxons and Danes led to linguistic and cultural exchange
- Many Old Norse words entered the English language (sky, window, husband)
- Scandinavian art styles influenced Late Anglo-Saxon art (Ringerike style)
- The threat of Viking raids led to a strengthening of English kingship
- Rulers like Alfred the Great organized defense and extracted greater service from their followers
- This laid foundations for the growth of royal power in the 10th-11th centuries
Social Hierarchy and Aristocracy
Structure of Anglo-Saxon Society
- Anglo-Saxon society was hierarchical, with the king at the top, followed by the nobility ( and ), clergy, and commoners ( and serfs)
- The aristocracy consisted of the king's leading followers, who were granted land in return for military service
- The rank of earl (ealdorman) was the highest, governing large shires (Northumbria, Mercia)
- Lesser thegns served as retainers to earls and the king
Power and Privileges of the Aristocracy
- Earls had significant autonomy in their territories
- They controlled justice, minting and military forces
- Powerful families often dominated earldoms for generations (Godwins in Wessex)
- The king relied on the aristocracy for military service, counsel and local administration
- The , or king's council, was composed of leading nobles and clergy who advised the king and witnessed charters
- Aristocrats were expected to maintain a retinue of armed followers, the origins of the later Medieval feudal system
- Status and wealth were closely tied to land ownership and the ability to attract followers
Growth of Aristocratic Power
- The late Anglo-Saxon period saw a growth in the power and landed wealth of the aristocracy, as successive kings granted more bookland
- By 1066, a few leading families controlled much of England's land and exercised significant political power, a factor in the succession dispute after 's death
- However, Anglo-Saxon kingship remained more centralized and powerful compared to its European counterparts
- The aristocracy never developed into a fully independent feudal class as on the continent (France, Germany)
Key Terms to Review (25)
Agriculture: Agriculture refers to the practice of cultivating soil, growing crops, and raising animals for food, fiber, and other products used to sustain and enhance human life. In Anglo-Saxon England, agriculture was not just a means of subsistence; it formed the backbone of the economy and social structure, influencing trade practices and societal changes during different periods.
Anglo-Saxon Law: Anglo-Saxon law refers to the legal system that existed in England from the 5th to the 11th centuries, characterized by its reliance on customary law, local courts, and a mix of punitive and compensatory justice. This legal framework played a crucial role in shaping the social and economic structure of Anglo-Saxon society, particularly during significant transitions such as the establishment of the Danelaw and the socio-economic changes leading up to the Norman Conquest.
Aristocracy: Aristocracy refers to a form of government or social structure where power and privilege are held by a small, elite class, often based on noble lineage and land ownership. This group played a crucial role in shaping the social hierarchy and political landscape during the late Anglo-Saxon period, influencing economic practices and societal norms.
Bookland: Bookland refers to a form of land ownership in Anglo-Saxon England where land was granted to individuals by charter, making it a legally recognized property right. This system distinguished it from other types of landholdings, emphasizing a more secure and formalized method of ownership that provided greater rights to landholders compared to traditional methods like tenancy or gift. The concept of bookland highlights the evolving legal and economic landscape during the late Anglo-Saxon period, as it indicates a shift toward more structured property rights.
Burhs: Burhs were fortified settlements established in Anglo-Saxon England, primarily during the late 9th and early 10th centuries, to provide protection against Viking invasions. These structures served not only as military strongholds but also as centers for trade and community life, playing a significant role in the transformation of urban landscapes and the organization of society during this period.
Christianization: Christianization refers to the process of converting individuals and societies to Christianity, which played a pivotal role in shaping the cultural and political landscape of Anglo-Saxon England. This movement influenced the establishment of monastic institutions, the formation of kingdoms, and inter-kingdom relations, while also marking a shift from pagan beliefs to Christian practices.
Crop rotation: Crop rotation is an agricultural practice that involves alternating the types of crops grown on a particular piece of land over successive seasons. This method enhances soil fertility, reduces soil erosion, and helps prevent pest and disease buildup, making farming more sustainable and productive. Implementing crop rotation played a crucial role in improving agricultural output and supported economic activities, influencing trade dynamics and social changes during the late Anglo-Saxon period.
Cultural mixing: Cultural mixing refers to the process where different cultures come into contact and exchange ideas, practices, and beliefs, resulting in a blending or fusion of cultural elements. In the late Anglo-Saxon period, this phenomenon was particularly evident as various groups, including the Anglo-Saxons, Vikings, and Normans, interacted through trade, warfare, and settlement, leading to significant social and economic transformations.
Danelaw: The Danelaw refers to the historical area of England where Norse law and customs predominated following Viking invasions, particularly in the late 9th and early 10th centuries. This region was marked by its unique legal practices and social structures that differed from those of Anglo-Saxon England, profoundly influencing the political landscape and cultural dynamics of the time.
Demesne: Demesne refers to the land that a lord retained for his own use within a feudal estate, rather than renting it out to tenants. This land was crucial for the lordโs own agricultural production and wealth, playing a significant role in the economic structure of Anglo-Saxon England during a time of transformation in agriculture and social organization.
Earls: Earls were high-ranking nobles in Anglo-Saxon England, equivalent to the modern concept of a count, who held significant land and power. They were responsible for managing large estates, administering justice, and leading military forces, making them key figures in the social and political structure of the time.
Edward the Confessor: Edward the Confessor was an English king who reigned from 1042 to 1066, known for his pious nature and the construction of Westminster Abbey. His rule marked a significant period of stability in Anglo-Saxon England, but it also laid the groundwork for the events leading to the Norman Conquest.
Freemen: Freemen were individuals in Anglo-Saxon England who held certain rights and privileges, distinguishing them from serfs and slaves. They were typically landowners or tenant farmers who enjoyed personal freedom and the ability to make legal agreements, participate in trade, and engage in local governance. This status was significant in understanding the social structure and the economic dynamics of the time.
Heavy wheeled plow: The heavy wheeled plow is a significant agricultural tool designed for deeper tillage of the soil, featuring a heavy frame and wheels that allow it to penetrate tough earth. This innovation marked a transition in farming practices during the late Anglo-Saxon period, enabling more efficient cultivation of heavier soils and leading to increased agricultural productivity. Its introduction had profound effects on land use, farming techniques, and social structures within rural communities.
King Cnut: King Cnut, also known as Cnut the Great, was a Norse king who ruled over England, Denmark, Norway, and parts of what is now Sweden during the early 11th century. His reign marked a significant era in the late Anglo-Saxon period, where economic and social changes began to reshape England, especially through his policies that integrated Anglo-Saxon and Viking cultures.
Local Lordship: Local lordship refers to the system of governance in Anglo-Saxon England where local lords held power and authority over specific territories, managing land and its inhabitants. These lords were crucial in the decentralized political structure of the time, often acting as both military leaders and local administrators. Their role became increasingly important during the late Anglo-Saxon period as social and economic changes reshaped power dynamics and community relationships.
Manorialism: Manorialism is a system of land management and economic organization that dominated medieval Europe, particularly in the context of feudalism. This system structured society around the lord's manor, where peasants worked the land in exchange for protection and a place to live. The relationship between lords and serfs was central to this system, influencing social hierarchy and shaping economic conditions, especially during significant transformations in late medieval England.
Norman Conquest: The Norman Conquest refers to the invasion and occupation of England by the Normans, led by William the Conqueror, following his victory at the Battle of Hastings in 1066. This event dramatically transformed English society, governance, and culture, influencing various aspects such as architecture, literature, and the socio-economic landscape.
Open-field system: The open-field system was a method of agricultural organization used in medieval England, characterized by the division of land into several large fields that were shared by the community. This system allowed farmers to cultivate their own strips of land within these common fields, promoting collective farming practices and the sharing of resources. It played a vital role in shaping agricultural productivity and social structures during the period.
Serfdom: Serfdom is a form of agricultural labor in which a peasant is bound to a specific piece of land and under the authority of a lord, often unable to leave without permission. This system was prevalent in late Anglo-Saxon England, where economic and social changes began to reshape the feudal structure, impacting the lives of serfs and landowners alike.
Serfs: Serfs were agricultural laborers who were bound to the land they worked on during the feudal system in late Anglo-Saxon England. Unlike slaves, serfs were not owned by a lord but were tied to a specific estate, providing labor and services in exchange for protection and the right to work a plot of land for their own subsistence. This relationship defined social structures and economic practices during this period.
Thegns: Thegns were a class of Anglo-Saxon noblemen who held land granted by the king or a higher-ranking lord, serving as important local leaders and warriors. They played a crucial role in the social structure, military, and political life of Anglo-Saxon England, often acting as the link between the king and the common people.
Trade hubs: Trade hubs are centralized locations where commerce and trade activities are concentrated, facilitating the exchange of goods, services, and ideas among various groups. In the context of the late Anglo-Saxon period, these hubs played a critical role in shaping economic and social changes, fostering connections between different regions and cultures while contributing to the rise of urban centers.
Viking Raids: Viking raids were incursions by Norse warriors, traders, and settlers from Scandinavia during the late 8th to early 11th centuries, aimed at plundering, settling, and expanding territories. These raids profoundly influenced political dynamics, economic structures, and cultural exchanges in regions including the British Isles and continental Europe.
Witan: The witan was an assembly of nobles and clergy in Anglo-Saxon England that served as an advisory council to the king. This institution played a crucial role in the governance and political structure of early English society, influencing decisions related to law, war, and succession.