5.3 The Second Persian Invasion
4 min read•august 13, 2024
The Second Persian Invasion was a pivotal moment in Ancient Greek history. , seeking revenge for his father's defeat at Marathon, led a massive army to conquer Greece. The Greeks, led by Athens and Sparta, united to face this existential threat.
Key battles like Thermopylae and Salamis showcased Greek courage and strategy. Despite being outnumbered, the Greeks used their knowledge of the terrain and naval tactics to outmaneuver the Persians. This invasion's outcome shaped the future of Western civilization.
Xerxes' Preparations for Invasion
Xerxes' Ascension and Motivations
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- Xerxes I, son of Darius I, became king of the Persian Achaemenid Empire in 486 BCE
- Immediately began planning a second invasion of Greece to avenge his father's defeat at Marathon (490 BCE)
Assembling the Persian Army
- Xerxes spent several years amassing a massive army
- Ancient sources claimed it numbered over 2 million men
- Modern estimates put it closer to 200,000-300,000
- The Persians had a multinational force drawing from all parts of their empire
- Included Persians, Medes, Assyrians, Arabs, Egyptians, Indians
- Even some Greeks from Ionia and Thessaly
- Xerxes led the army personally together with his senior general
Infrastructure Projects
- The Persians constructed a pontoon bridge across the Hellespont (Dardanelles) strait
- Allowed their army to cross from Asia into Europe
- Xerxes also had a canal dug across the isthmus of Mount Athos
- Avoided losing ships to storms as occurred in the first invasion (492 BCE)
Battles of the Second Persian Invasion
Greek Preparations and Alliances
- The Greek city-states met and formed an alliance to resist the Persian invasion
- Led by Athens and Sparta
- Other states like Thebes and Thessaly submitted to Persian authority
- The Athenians, under , had built up a strong navy in the years before the invasion
Battle of Thermopylae (480 BCE)
- A small Greek force of 300 Spartans and 7000 allies under King delayed the massive Persian army for several days
- Took place in a narrow coastal pass at Thermopylae
- Though the Persians ultimately broke through, the battle bought crucial time for Greek preparations
- Leonidas and the Spartans fought to the last man, which became legendary
Persian Advance and Battle of Salamis
- After Thermopylae, the Persians advanced and captured an evacuated Athens
- Burned the city and temples like the Acropolis
- The Athenians evacuated to the nearby island of Salamis
- In the ensuing naval , the Greek fleet outmaneuvered the Persians in the narrow strait
- Themistocles used a ruse to lure the Persians into the strait
- The Greeks won a decisive victory, wrecking Xerxes' fleet
- Xerxes then retreated to Asia with much of his army, leaving Mardonius in command
Battles of Plataea and Mycale (479 BCE)
- Mardonius recaptured Athens in 479 BCE
- The Greeks assembled a large allied army under
- Mardonius' army was decisively defeated by the Greeks at the , effectively ending the invasion
- Around the same time, the remnants of the Persian fleet were defeated at the in Ionia
Greek Leadership in Defense
Themistocles
- Athenian statesman and general who played a crucial role in preparing Athens for the invasion
- Convinced the city to build a large fleet of triremes in the preceding years
- Fortified the harbor at Piraeus
- As a strategos (general), Themistocles commanded the Greek allied fleet during the invasion
- Conceived the strategy to lure the Persian fleet into the narrow strait at Salamis where Greek ships had the advantage
- Used a spy to trick Xerxes into believing the Greeks were in disarray, inducing him to send his fleet into the strait
Leonidas
- King Leonidas I of Sparta personally led the rearguard of 300 Spartans and allies at the
- Aim was to slow the Persian advance and buy time
- The Spartans' fight to the death against overwhelming odds became legendary
- Seen as a symbol of heroic Greek resistance and sacrifice
- Gave Athens crucial time to evacuate its population ahead of the Persian advance
- Other key leaders included (Spartan regent) and (Athenian) who commanded at Plataea
Factors Contributing to Greek Victory
Greek Advantages
- and cooperation was a major factor
- Many city-states put aside their differences to form an effective alliance ()
- Led by the major powers of Athens and Sparta
- The Greeks had shorter supply lines and intimate knowledge of the local geography
- Used to great advantage in key battles like Thermopylae and Salamis
- Greek hoplite soldiers had superior armor, weapons and training compared to most Persian infantry
- Greek triremes were more maneuverable than the larger Persian ships
- Proved decisive at Salamis
Persian Weaknesses
- Persian overconfidence and strategic mistakes played a role
- Xerxes was tricked into the Battle of Salamis
- Decision to leave Mardonius' army exposed after the king's retreat
- The invasions overlapped with political turmoil and court intrigue in the
- May have hampered their effectiveness
- Controlling such a large multinational force over long supply lines proved difficult
Leadership and Strategy
- Bold and clever strategies by leaders like Themistocles and Leonidas helped the Greeks gain advantages despite being outnumbered
- Thermopylae bought time and forced Persians to use the narrow coastal road
- Salamis neutralized Persian naval superiority
- Themistocles' foresight in building the proved crucial
- Sparta's military prowess and leadership provided a strong backbone to the Greek resistance
Key Terms to Review (22)
Aristides: Aristides was an Athenian statesman known for his leadership and contributions during the early stages of the Persian Wars, particularly the Second Persian Invasion. He was admired for his integrity and fairness, earning him the nickname 'the Just' and played a crucial role in the Battle of Marathon and the subsequent formation of the Delian League.
Athenian Fleet: The Athenian Fleet was the naval force of Athens, primarily composed of triremes, that played a crucial role in the city's military strategy and dominance during the Classical period. This fleet was essential during key conflicts, including the Second Persian Invasion, where its strength and tactics allowed Athens to secure victories against larger enemy forces and establish maritime power in the Aegean Sea.
Battle of Marathon: The Battle of Marathon was a pivotal confrontation that occurred in 490 BCE during the First Persian Invasion of Greece, where a vastly outnumbered Athenian army achieved a stunning victory over Persian forces. This battle not only marked a significant turning point in the struggle between Greece and Persia but also showcased the effectiveness of hoplite warfare and highlighted the emergence of Athenian democracy and unity against a common enemy.
Battle of Mycale: The Battle of Mycale was a significant naval engagement fought in 479 BCE between the Greek city-states and the Persian Empire during the Second Persian Invasion. This battle marked a turning point in the Greco-Persian Wars, as it not only led to a decisive Greek victory but also set the stage for the liberation of Ionia from Persian control. The combined forces of the Greeks, primarily led by the Athenians and their allies, were instrumental in showcasing Greek unity against a common enemy.
Battle of Plataea: The Battle of Plataea, fought in 479 BCE, was a decisive conflict during the Greco-Persian Wars that marked the end of the Second Persian Invasion of Greece. This battle saw a coalition of Greek city-states, primarily led by the Spartans and Athenians, successfully defeat the Persian army, solidifying Greek resistance against Persian domination and establishing the foundation for future Greek unity.
Battle of Salamis: The Battle of Salamis was a pivotal naval engagement fought in 480 BCE between the Greek city-states and the Persian Empire during the Second Persian Invasion. This battle showcased the strategic importance of the geography and naval capabilities of the Greeks, leading to a decisive victory that shifted the momentum in favor of the Greek forces. The aftermath of this battle had far-reaching consequences for both Greece and Persia, influencing the formation of alliances and setting the stage for Athenian imperialism.
Battle of Thermopylae: The Battle of Thermopylae was a pivotal confrontation that took place in 480 BCE during the Second Persian Invasion, where a small Greek force, led by King Leonidas of Sparta, made a legendary stand against the much larger Persian army. This battle is not only significant for its military tactics but also embodies the Spartan ideals of bravery, sacrifice, and loyalty to one's city-state, highlighting the culture and society of Sparta while showcasing the intense struggle between the Greek city-states and Persian forces.
Delian League: The Delian League was an alliance of Greek city-states led by Athens, formed in 478 BCE after the Persian Wars, aimed at defending against further Persian aggression and providing collective security. It was significant not only for its military cooperation but also for its role in the emergence of Athenian power and influence during the Classical period.
Flanking Maneuver: A flanking maneuver is a military tactic where forces attack the enemy from the sides or rear, rather than head-on. This approach is designed to surprise the opponent, disrupt their formation, and create openings for further attacks. It often relies on speed and coordination, allowing smaller or less powerful forces to exploit weaknesses in the enemy’s defense.
Golden Age of Athens: The Golden Age of Athens refers to a period from approximately 480 to 404 BCE, marked by political stability, cultural flourishing, and economic prosperity following the Persian Wars. During this time, Athens became a powerful city-state and the heart of artistic, philosophical, and democratic developments that influenced the course of Western civilization.
Greek Unity: Greek unity refers to the cooperation and solidarity among the various city-states of ancient Greece, particularly in the face of external threats. This concept became especially significant during times of crisis, such as the Second Persian Invasion, when rival city-states like Athens and Sparta put aside their differences to form alliances and coordinate military efforts against a common enemy. Such unity was crucial for successfully resisting foreign invasions and maintaining independence.
Hellenic League: The Hellenic League was a coalition of Greek city-states formed primarily to unite against the common threat posed by Persia during the Persian Wars. This alliance facilitated military cooperation and strategic planning among the member states, especially during the crucial battles against Persian invasions, highlighting the importance of unity in the face of external threats.
Leonidas: Leonidas was a prominent king of Sparta and a legendary warrior who is best known for his leadership at the Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BCE during the Second Persian Invasion. He epitomized the Spartan ideal of bravery and sacrifice, standing as a symbol of resistance against overwhelming odds. His role not only defined the military prowess of Sparta but also highlighted the broader themes of courage and honor in Greek culture.
Mardonius: Mardonius was a Persian general and politician, best known for his role during the Second Persian Invasion of Greece, particularly in the events leading up to the Battle of Plataea. He was initially an important military leader under King Darius I and later took charge of the Persian forces after the death of Darius, advocating for a continued campaign against Greece. His leadership is significant as it reflects the strategic decisions made by Persia in their attempts to expand their empire into the Greek city-states.
Naval warfare: Naval warfare refers to military operations conducted on or under the sea, utilizing naval forces to achieve strategic objectives. This form of combat is essential in controlling maritime trade routes, projecting power, and defending coastal territories. Throughout history, naval warfare has played a crucial role in major conflicts, particularly in shaping the outcomes of wars by dominating the seas.
Pausanias: Pausanias was a Spartan general who played a significant role during the Second Persian Invasion of Greece, particularly at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BCE. He is notable for his leadership and strategic decisions that contributed to the Greek victory against the invading Persian forces, marking a turning point in the Greco-Persian Wars.
Peloponnesian League: The Peloponnesian League was a military alliance of city-states in the Peloponnese, led by Sparta, formed to counter the power of Athens and its Delian League allies. This coalition was significant in shaping the political landscape of Ancient Greece and played a crucial role in the conflicts that arose during the Peloponnesian War.
Persian Empire: The Persian Empire was a series of imperial dynasties that expanded across three continents, notably the Achaemenid dynasty which reached its height in the 5th century BCE. Known for its significant advancements in administration, infrastructure, and culture, the empire played a crucial role in shaping the ancient world, particularly through its interactions and conflicts with Greece.
Rise of Democracy: The rise of democracy refers to the gradual development of systems of government in which power is vested in the people, who exercise that power directly or through elected representatives. This movement, particularly prominent in ancient Athens during the 5th century BCE, marked a significant shift from autocratic rule to a more participatory governance structure, emphasizing citizen engagement and political equality.
Spartan Leadership: Spartan leadership refers to the system of governance and military command that characterized the ancient city-state of Sparta, known for its rigorous military training and austere lifestyle. This leadership model emphasized discipline, strength, and collective responsibility, with leaders often emerging from the ranks of the warrior class known as Spartiates. The unique political structure, which included dual kingship and a council of elders, facilitated decision-making that prioritized the welfare of the state over individual interests.
Themistocles: Themistocles was a prominent Athenian statesman and general, known for his strategic foresight and leadership during the early 5th century BCE. He played a crucial role in building up the Athenian navy, advocating for its expansion to prepare for potential threats, particularly from Persia. His actions were pivotal during the Second Persian Invasion, leading to significant victories that shaped Athenian imperialism and military tactics.
Xerxes I: Xerxes I was the fourth king of the Persian Empire, reigning from 486 to 465 BCE, and is best known for his massive invasion of Greece during the Greco-Persian Wars. His ambitious campaign sought to expand Persian territory and avenge the previous Persian defeat at Marathon, leading to significant battles such as Thermopylae and Salamis, which had a lasting impact on Greek history and culture.