12.3 Mercenaries and Professional Soldiers
5 min read•august 13, 2024
Greek warfare evolved as mercenaries became more prevalent. These professional soldiers, motivated by pay rather than loyalty, served various roles in ancient armies. Their presence altered power dynamics between city-states, as wealth became crucial for military success.
The rise of mercenaries coincided with changes in Greek society. As traditional hoplite systems declined, mercenaries offered specialized skills. This shift had far-reaching effects on politics, economics, and the very nature of citizenship in ancient Greece.
Mercenaries in Ancient Greek Warfare
Roles and Motivations of Mercenaries
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- Mercenaries were professional soldiers who fought for pay rather than out of loyalty to a particular city-state or cause
- Motivated primarily by financial gain and the opportunity for glory and adventure
- Served a variety of roles in ancient Greek warfare
- Heavy infantry ()
- Light infantry ()
- Archers
- Cavalry
- Often formed specialized units within larger armies
- Frequently hired by Persian rulers who relied on their expertise and combat prowess
- Cyrus the Younger hired the , the most famous group of Greek mercenaries, for his failed campaign against his brother Artaxerxes II
- Employed by Greek city-states to supplement their citizen militias, particularly during prolonged conflicts ()
- hired mercenaries to help maintain its hegemony over other city-states
Impact on Greek Warfare and Society
- Altered the traditional balance of power between Greek city-states as wealth became increasingly important in determining military success
- City-states with greater financial resources could hire more mercenaries and gain a significant advantage over their rivals
- Played a decisive role in several major battles and campaigns
- Spartan victory over at in 405 BCE, which effectively ended the Peloponnesian War, was aided by skilled mercenary forces
- Had a destabilizing effect on the Greek political landscape
- Loyalty of mercenaries was primarily to their paymaster rather than to any particular city-state or ideology, making it easier for ambitious individuals to seize power through military means
- Coincided with a decline in the traditional hoplite system which relied on citizen-soldiers who fought out of duty and patriotism
- As mercenaries became more prevalent, the cohesion and morale of citizen militias began to erode
Mercenaries and Power Dynamics
Altering the Balance of Power
- The use of mercenaries altered the traditional balance of power between Greek city-states
- Wealth became increasingly important in determining military success
- City-states with greater financial resources could hire more mercenaries and gain a significant advantage over their rivals
- Mercenaries played a decisive role in several major battles and campaigns
- Spartan victory over Athens at Aegospotami in 405 BCE, which effectively ended the Peloponnesian War, was aided by skilled mercenary forces
- The presence of skilled mercenary forces could tip the scales in favor of one side or another
Destabilizing Effects on Greek Politics
- The reliance on mercenaries had a destabilizing effect on the Greek political landscape
- Loyalty of mercenaries was primarily to their paymaster rather than to any particular city-state or ideology
- This made it easier for ambitious individuals to seize power through military means
- Coincided with a decline in the traditional hoplite system which relied on citizen-soldiers who fought out of duty and patriotism
- As mercenaries became more prevalent, the cohesion and morale of citizen militias began to erode
Rise of Professional Soldiers
Economic and Social Factors
- The development of coinage and the growth of a monetary economy in ancient Greece made it easier to hire mercenaries
- Ability to pay soldiers in cash, rather than in land or other forms of wealth, made mercenary service more attractive and accessible
- The increasing cost and complexity of warfare made it more difficult for city-states to rely solely on citizen militias
- Need for specialized equipment and training
- Mercenaries who dedicated themselves full-time to military pursuits were better equipped to handle these demands
- Fueled by social and economic inequalities within Greek city-states
- As wealth became increasingly concentrated in the hands of a few elite families, many poorer citizens found themselves unable to afford the equipment necessary to serve as hoplites
- Mercenary service offered an alternative means of making a living
Opportunities for Mercenaries
- The devastation caused by prolonged conflicts (Peloponnesian War) left many Greeks without land or other means of support
- Becoming a mercenary was often the only viable option for these displaced individuals
- The spread of Greek culture and influence throughout the Mediterranean world created new opportunities
- Greek soldiers were highly prized by foreign rulers for their skills and expertise
Ethics of Mercenary Warfare
Citizenship and Obligation
- The use of mercenaries raised questions about the nature of citizenship and the obligations of individuals to their city-states
- Some Greeks argued that relying on hired soldiers undermined the ideal of the citizen-soldier
- Eroded the sense of shared purpose and identity that held city-states together
- Blurred the lines between warfare and commerce
- Military service became a means of personal enrichment rather than a duty to one's community
- Led to concerns about the corrupting influence of money on the traditional values of honor and virtue
Loyalty and Conduct
- The loyalty of mercenaries to their paymasters, rather than to any particular city-state or cause, raised questions about their reliability and trustworthiness
- Instances of mercenaries switching sides or abandoning their employers in the midst of a campaign could have devastating consequences
- Had implications for the treatment of prisoners and non-combatants
- Since mercenaries were not bound by the same codes of conduct as citizen-soldiers, they may have been more likely to engage in acts of cruelty or brutality
- Could be seen as a symptom of the declining values and institutions of ancient Greek society
- City-states became more focused on wealth and power than on the ideals of democracy and civic virtue
- The rise of professional soldiers reflected broader changes in Greek culture and politics
Key Terms to Review (18)
Aegospotami: Aegospotami was the site of a decisive naval battle that occurred in 405 BC during the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta. This battle marked a critical turning point, as Spartan forces, aided by their Persian allies, defeated the Athenian fleet, leading to the end of Athenian dominance in the Greek world. The significance of Aegospotami lies not only in its immediate military impact but also in its broader implications for the use of mercenaries and professional soldiers in warfare at that time.
Athens: Athens was a prominent city-state in ancient Greece, known for its cultural, political, and intellectual achievements. It is often regarded as the birthplace of democracy and played a significant role in the development of Western civilization, particularly through its contributions to philosophy, art, and governance.
Battle of Leuctra: The Battle of Leuctra was a significant military engagement that took place in 371 BCE between the Theban army and the Spartan forces. This battle marked a turning point in Greek history, leading to the rise of Thebes as a major power and challenging Sparta's dominance in the region. The innovative tactics used by the Thebans, particularly the formation of the Sacred Band, played a crucial role in their victory, reshaping alliances and military strategies in subsequent conflicts.
Contractual service: Contractual service refers to a formal agreement where individuals, often mercenaries or professional soldiers, provide military services in exchange for compensation. This system of contractual service allowed states and private entities to hire skilled fighters for specific campaigns or longer-term engagements, reflecting a shift from traditional conscription to a more flexible, market-driven approach to military manpower.
Epaminondas: Epaminondas was a prominent Theban general and statesman known for his innovative military tactics and strategic brilliance in the 4th century BCE. His leadership was pivotal in ending Spartan hegemony and establishing Thebes as a major power in Greece, particularly highlighted during the Battle of Leuctra.
Flanking Maneuver: A flanking maneuver is a military tactic where forces attack the enemy from the sides or rear, rather than head-on. This approach is designed to surprise the opponent, disrupt their formation, and create openings for further attacks. It often relies on speed and coordination, allowing smaller or less powerful forces to exploit weaknesses in the enemy’s defense.
Heroic ethos: Heroic ethos refers to the code of conduct and values associated with heroic figures in ancient cultures, emphasizing virtues such as bravery, honor, and personal glory. This concept shaped the motivations and behaviors of mercenaries and professional soldiers, who often sought to embody these heroic ideals in their pursuits of fame and fortune on the battlefield.
Hoplites: Hoplites were heavily armed infantry soldiers of ancient Greece, typically citizen-soldiers who fought in a phalanx formation. Their role was crucial in the evolution of Greek warfare, as they contributed to the shift from aristocratic cavalry to a more democratic military structure where ordinary citizens could participate in battle.
Mercenary diplomacy: Mercenary diplomacy refers to the practice of hiring professional soldiers, or mercenaries, to conduct military operations or support political objectives on behalf of a state or group. This approach allows for a flexible and often cost-effective means of pursuing foreign policy goals, without the need for official state armies. It can blur the lines between warfare and diplomacy, as mercenaries may not only engage in combat but also serve as political negotiators or protectors.
Military hierarchy: Military hierarchy refers to the structured chain of command within military organizations, where individuals hold specific ranks and responsibilities that dictate their authority and duties. This system ensures order, discipline, and efficient decision-making in military operations, allowing for clear communication and delegation of tasks. In contexts involving mercenaries and professional soldiers, military hierarchy becomes crucial as it organizes personnel based on experience, skills, and the nature of their contracts.
Pay Scale: Pay scale refers to the system or structure that outlines how much a worker is paid based on various factors like their position, experience, and sometimes performance. In the context of mercenaries and professional soldiers, pay scales are crucial as they determine the financial compensation for military services rendered, impacting recruitment, retention, and motivation of soldiers.
Peloponnesian War: The Peloponnesian War was a protracted conflict fought between the Athenian Empire and the Peloponnesian League, led by Sparta, from 431 to 404 BCE. This war marked a significant turning point in ancient Greek history, highlighting the struggle for power and dominance among city-states and leading to a shift in the balance of power in the Greek world.
Peltasts: Peltasts were light infantry soldiers in ancient Greek armies, primarily known for their agility and flexibility on the battlefield. They typically carried small shields called peltai and were armed with javelins, allowing them to skirmish effectively against heavier armored troops. Their role as mobile fighters made them crucial in various military formations, especially during conflicts involving both heavy and light infantry.
Phalanx: A phalanx is a military formation used by ancient Greek hoplites, where soldiers would stand shoulder to shoulder in ranks, creating a solid wall of shields and spears. This tactic allowed for effective defense and offense in battle, reflecting the organization and discipline of Greek city-states, especially in the context of military culture and warfare strategies.
Shock Tactics: Shock tactics refer to aggressive and unexpected military strategies aimed at demoralizing the enemy and creating confusion during conflict. These tactics often involve sudden and brutal assaults designed to instill fear, disrupt enemy operations, and cause psychological distress. This approach can be seen in various historical military contexts, notably during conflicts where unconventional warfare strategies were employed to gain an upper hand.
Sparta: Sparta was a prominent city-state in ancient Greece known for its military-oriented society and unique political system. Renowned for its disciplined citizens and powerful army, Sparta played a crucial role in various significant events in ancient Greek history, impacting the evolution of governance, warfare, and daily life.
Stigma of foreign soldiers: The stigma of foreign soldiers refers to the negative perception and social prejudice faced by mercenaries and foreign troops in ancient Greece, often seen as less honorable or trustworthy compared to native soldiers. This stigma was deeply rooted in cultural beliefs that prioritized loyalty to one’s homeland and viewed hired fighters as motivated primarily by financial gain rather than patriotism or duty. Such perceptions impacted the recruitment, treatment, and integration of foreign soldiers into Greek military forces.
Ten Thousand: The Ten Thousand refers to a famous group of Greek mercenaries who fought for Cyrus the Younger in his failed attempt to seize the Persian throne in 401 BC. Their journey, marked by remarkable military endurance and strategy, became legendary, particularly their perilous retreat through hostile territory back to Greece after Cyrus was defeated.