3.3 The Second Continental Congress and the Continental Army
5 min read•august 13, 2024
The took on the role of a national government in 1775, forming the and establishing key institutions. It justified armed resistance while attempting reconciliation with Britain, ultimately moving towards independence as peaceful resolution became impossible.
The Continental Army, led by , faced numerous challenges but evolved into an effective fighting force. Washington's strategic leadership and ability to maintain morale were crucial in holding the army together and ultimately achieving victory against the British.
Second Continental Congress Decisions
Establishment of National Government Functions
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The Second Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia in May 1775 in response to the outbreak of armed conflict between the colonies and Britain ()
The Congress took on the role of a national government, establishing key institutions and functions:
Formed an army (Continental Army) to fight against the British
Created a currency to facilitate economic transactions
Set up a post office for communication
Conducted foreign relations on behalf of the colonies
These actions demonstrated the Congress' assumption of governance responsibilities in the absence of British authority
Justification of Armed Resistance and Attempts at Reconciliation
In June 1775, the Congress issued the ""
Justified armed resistance to Britain as a response to British aggression
Asserted continued loyalty to King George III, emphasizing the conflict was with Parliament, not the Crown
The Congress sent the to King George III in July 1775 as a final attempt at reconciliation
Expressed desire for peaceful resolution and reaffirmed loyalty to the King
The petition was rejected by the King, who viewed the colonists as rebels
In response to the King's Proclamation of Rebellion in August 1775, the Congress began to move towards independence
Advised colonies to form their own governments in place of British rule
Reflected growing sentiment that reconciliation was no longer possible
Military and Economic Measures Against Britain
The Congress authorized the invasion of Canada in an attempt to add a fourteenth colony and deprive the British of a base for attack
The invasion ultimately failed, but demonstrated the Congress' willingness to take offensive action
In March 1776, the Congress authorized to attack British shipping
Privateering allowed private ship owners to seize British merchant vessels with the sanction of the Congress
Served as a form of economic warfare, disrupting British trade and supply lines
These military and economic measures signaled the Congress' determination to actively resist British authority and pressure Britain through multiple means
Formation of the Continental Army
Establishment and Composition of the Continental Army
In June 1775, the Second Continental Congress established the Continental Army as a unified military force to fight against the British
The Congress appointed George Washington as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army
Washington's leadership was seen as crucial to uniting the colonies in the war effort
The Continental Army was initially made up of the colonial militias that had fought at Lexington and Concord and in the Siege of Boston
These militias were organized under the overall command of the Continental Army
Washington organized the Continental Army with regiments from different colonies integrated together
This structure helped to foster a sense of national identity among the soldiers
Encouraged soldiers to see themselves as fighting for a common American cause rather than just their individual colonies
Challenges and Evolution of the Continental Army
The Continental Army suffered from shortages of essential supplies throughout the war
Lacked sufficient weapons, ammunition, clothing, and food
These shortages were due to the financial difficulties faced by the Congress in funding the war effort
The training and discipline of the Continental Army was initially poor compared to the professional British Army
Many soldiers were inexperienced and not used to the rigors of military life
Foreign military advisors, such as the Prussian , were brought in to help improve the army's performance
Training and discipline improved over time, making the Continental Army a more effective fighting force
The Continental Army was supplemented by state militias and foreign volunteers
Militias provided additional manpower and support in specific campaigns and battles
Foreign volunteers, such as the from France and from Poland, brought valuable skills and experience
However, the core of the army remained the Continental regiments established and funded by the Congress
George Washington's Leadership
Strategic Leadership and Morale
George Washington's leadership was crucial in holding the Continental Army together despite numerous defeats and hardships in the early years of the war
He maintained the unity and resolve of the army through difficult times, such as the winter encampment at in 1777-78
Washington's strategy focused on preserving the army and winning a war of attrition against the British
Avoided large-scale battles that risked the destruction of the army
Favored smaller engagements and strategic retreats to keep the army intact
This approach ultimately wore down British resources and will to continue the war
Washington's victories at and in late 1776 and early 1777 restored morale and confidence in the American cause
These victories came after a string of defeats and demonstrated Washington's ability to adapt and seize opportunities
Bolstered the spirits of both the army and the general public, who had been disheartened by earlier setbacks
Decisive Victories and Political Challenges
Washington's leadership at the Battles of Saratoga in 1777 resulted in a crucial victory that convinced France to enter the war on the American side
The defeat of a major British army at Saratoga was a turning point in the war
French military and financial support greatly improved the prospects for American success
Washington faced political challenges to his leadership, but his character and judgment allowed him to navigate these successfully
The Conway Cabal, an effort by some members of Congress to replace Washington with General Horatio Gates, was thwarted by Washington's supporters
The Newburgh Conspiracy, a threatened mutiny by Continental Army officers over lack of pay, was defused by Washington's personal appeal to their loyalty
Washington's devotion to the American cause and his ability to rise above political divisions were instrumental in sustaining the army and achieving ultimate victory
His leadership held the army and the revolutionary cause together through numerous challenges and setbacks
His character and judgment inspired trust and loyalty among his soldiers and the American people
Key Terms to Review (23)
Articles of Confederation: The Articles of Confederation were the first written constitution of the United States, ratified in 1781, which established a loose alliance of sovereign states and a weak central government. While they played a crucial role in governing the nation during the Revolutionary War, they ultimately highlighted the need for a stronger federal system due to their many limitations.
Baron von Steuben: Baron von Steuben was a Prussian military officer who played a crucial role in transforming the Continental Army during the American Revolution. He is best known for his work at Valley Forge, where he implemented rigorous training and discipline that significantly improved the effectiveness of American troops. His expertise helped instill a sense of professionalism and organization in the army, which was vital for the Continental Army’s success in subsequent battles.
Battle of Bunker Hill: The Battle of Bunker Hill was a significant early battle in the American Revolutionary War that took place on June 17, 1775, primarily on Breed's Hill in Charlestown, Massachusetts. Although it resulted in a tactical victory for the British forces, the battle demonstrated the colonial militia's ability to stand up to the British Army, fostering a sense of unity and determination among the American forces. This clash occurred during the Siege of Boston, which was marked by growing tensions between colonial militias and British troops, and also influenced the establishment of the Continental Army under the leadership of the Second Continental Congress.
Battle of Saratoga: The Battle of Saratoga was a pivotal conflict during the American Revolution that took place in 1777 and is often considered a turning point in the war. This battle, which consisted of two significant engagements in September and October, showcased the effectiveness of the Continental Army against British forces and significantly boosted American morale. The American victory at Saratoga not only helped to secure French support for the revolutionaries but also marked a shift in the perception of the war, demonstrating that the Continental Army could defeat British troops on a large scale.
Common Sense: Common Sense is a pamphlet written by Thomas Paine in 1776 that advocated for American independence from British rule. This influential work articulated the case for self-governance and directly challenged the legitimacy of monarchy, urging colonists to break free from British control and establish a democratic republic. The pamphlet resonated with the sentiments of the time, reflecting the growing desire for autonomy and individual rights among the colonies.
Continental Army: The Continental Army was the military force established by the Second Continental Congress in 1775 to fight against British rule during the American Revolutionary War. It represented the first organized national army of the colonies, composed of soldiers from various colonies united under a single command, and was crucial in achieving American independence.
Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms: The Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms was a document adopted by the Second Continental Congress in July 1775, which outlined the reasons the American colonies felt compelled to take up arms against British rule. This declaration emphasized the colonies' desire for liberty and the belief that they had exhausted all peaceful means to resolve their grievances with Britain. It served as both a justification for armed resistance and an appeal for support from fellow colonists and foreign nations, reinforcing the resolve during critical events such as the Siege of Boston and the Battle of Bunker Hill.
French Alliance: The French Alliance refers to the formal agreement between the United States and France during the American Revolution, which was established in 1778 to provide military support against Great Britain. This alliance was crucial in turning the tide of the war, as France provided essential resources, troops, and naval power that significantly boosted the American war effort and ultimately contributed to independence.
George Washington: George Washington was the Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and became the first President of the United States. His leadership was pivotal in the struggle for independence, guiding the colonies through military challenges and shaping the newly formed nation.
Lexington and Concord: Lexington and Concord were the sites of the first military engagements of the American Revolutionary War, occurring on April 19, 1775. These battles marked a significant turning point, as they ignited armed conflict between the American colonies and British forces, leading to the formation of the Continental Army and the escalation of revolutionary efforts. The confrontations at these locations demonstrated the growing tensions and resistance among the colonists against British rule, ultimately propelling the need for a unified colonial response.
Loyalists: Loyalists were American colonists who remained loyal to the British Crown during the American Revolution, opposing the push for independence. They believed that their political and economic interests were best served by staying connected to Britain, viewing the rebellion as a threat to stability and order.
Marquis de Lafayette: The Marquis de Lafayette was a French aristocrat and military officer who played a key role in both the American and French Revolutions. He became an influential figure in the American struggle for independence, using his connections and resources to aid the Continental Army and strengthen the alliance between France and the American colonies.
Militia: A militia is a group of ordinary citizens who are trained to fight and can be called upon in emergencies, often serving as a supplement to a regular army. These citizen-soldiers played a crucial role during the American Revolution, forming the backbone of local defense and supporting larger military efforts. Militias were made up of volunteers and were essential for their familiarity with the terrain and their communities, which gave them an advantage in guerrilla warfare tactics.
Olive Branch Petition: The Olive Branch Petition was a final attempt by the Second Continental Congress to avoid a full-scale war with Great Britain by affirming loyalty to the Crown while seeking redress for grievances. This petition symbolized the desire for reconciliation and peace, reflecting the colonists' hope to resolve issues without further conflict. However, its rejection by King George III marked a turning point that pushed the colonies closer to declaring independence.
Patriots: Patriots were American colonists who rebelled against British rule during the late 18th century, advocating for independence and democratic governance. They played a crucial role in the events leading up to and during the American Revolution, including forming their own militias, supporting the Continental Congress, and pushing back against British policies they viewed as oppressive.
Princeton: Princeton refers to the significant Battle of Princeton, fought on January 3, 1777, during the American Revolutionary War. This battle was a pivotal moment for the Continental Army, as it marked a series of victories following George Washington's surprise attack on Trenton, boosting morale and support for the American cause. The success at Princeton not only helped to solidify Washington's leadership but also demonstrated the potential of the Continental Army to achieve strategic victories against British forces.
Privateers: Privateers were privately owned ships that were authorized by a government to attack foreign vessels during wartime. They played a significant role during the American Revolution by supplementing the Continental Navy and disrupting British trade, thereby impacting the overall naval strategy of the colonies.
Second Continental Congress: The Second Continental Congress was a convention of delegates from the thirteen American colonies that met in Philadelphia in May 1775, functioning as the de facto national government during the early stages of the American Revolution. It played a critical role in organizing the colonial resistance against British rule, managing the war effort, and ultimately declaring independence from Britain.
Siege of Yorktown: The Siege of Yorktown was a pivotal military confrontation during the American Revolution that took place from September 28 to October 19, 1781. It marked the last major battle of the conflict, where American and French forces successfully besieged the British army commanded by General Cornwallis, leading to a decisive victory for the Continental forces. This siege underscored the importance of alliances and strategic military planning in the fight for independence.
Spanish Support: Spanish support refers to the assistance provided by Spain to the American colonists during the Revolutionary War, which included military aid, financial resources, and diplomatic backing. This support was crucial in bolstering the efforts of the Continental Army and the Second Continental Congress, highlighting Spain's role as a key ally against British colonial rule. The relationship between Spanish support and the American struggle for independence exemplifies how international alliances played a significant role in shaping the outcome of the Revolution.
Tadeusz Kościuszko: Tadeusz Kościuszko was a Polish-Lithuanian military engineer and general who played a vital role in both the American Revolution and the struggles for Polish independence. He is best known for his contributions to the design of fortifications and his leadership in battle, particularly at the Siege of Saratoga, which helped secure vital victories for the Continental Army.
Trenton: Trenton refers to the pivotal Battle of Trenton that took place on December 26, 1776, during the American Revolutionary War. This battle was significant for the morale of the Continental Army and represented a key victory against the Hessian forces hired by the British. The successful surprise attack at Trenton was a turning point that invigorated the revolutionary cause and helped to maintain support for the Continental Army amidst growing hardships.
Valley Forge: Valley Forge was the site of the Continental Army's winter encampment during the winter of 1777-1778, located in Pennsylvania. It is significant for its role in showcasing the resilience and determination of the American troops as they endured harsh conditions, lack of supplies, and low morale while training under the leadership of General George Washington. The experience at Valley Forge became a symbol of perseverance and unity in the fight for independence.