9.2 Native American literature
8 min read•august 21, 2024
Native American literature emerged from rich oral traditions, reflecting diverse cultures across North America. The transition from oral to written forms marked a significant shift in preserving and sharing Native American stories, traditions, and knowledge.
Key themes in Native American literature include , , , and . These works explore complex relationships between indigenous peoples, their ancestral lands, and colonizing forces, often intertwining themes to reflect holistic worldviews.
Origins of Native American literature
- Native American literature emerged from rich oral traditions predating European contact, reflecting diverse cultures and histories across North America
- Transition from oral to written forms marked a significant shift in preserving and sharing Native American stories, traditions, and knowledge
Oral traditions and storytelling
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- Passed down through generations, oral traditions served as cultural repositories
- Incorporated myths, legends, creation stories, and historical accounts
- Utilized mnemonic devices like rhythm, repetition, and symbolism to aid memory
- Often performed by designated storytellers or elders within the community
- Adapted and evolved over time, reflecting changing cultural contexts
Transition to written forms
- Began with European colonization and introduction of alphabetic writing systems
- Early written works often recorded by non-Native missionaries or anthropologists
- Native authors gradually adopted writing as a means of cultural preservation
- Bilingual texts emerged, combining Native languages with English translations
- Written literature allowed for wider dissemination of Native American perspectives
Key themes in Native American literature
- Native American literature explores complex relationships between indigenous peoples, their ancestral lands, and colonizing forces
- Themes often intertwine, reflecting the holistic worldview of many Native cultures
Connection to nature
- Portrays nature as a living entity with which humans have a reciprocal relationship
- Emphasizes ecological balance and sustainable practices
- Uses natural imagery and metaphors to convey spiritual and cultural concepts
- Explores the impact of environmental degradation on Native communities
- Incorporates traditional knowledge of plants, animals, and natural phenomena
Cultural identity and heritage
- Examines the complexities of Native American identity in a changing world
- Explores intergenerational transmission of cultural knowledge and practices
- Addresses issues of blood quantum and tribal enrollment
- Depicts struggles to maintain traditional ways of life in modern contexts
- Celebrates and adaptation in the face of adversity
Colonialism and displacement
- Recounts historical traumas such as forced relocation and boarding schools
- Explores the ongoing impacts of colonialism on Native communities
- Addresses land rights issues and treaty violations
- Examines the complexities of navigating between Native and dominant cultures
- Portrays resistance movements and efforts to reclaim
Spirituality and mythology
- Incorporates traditional creation stories and cosmologies
- Explores the role of spiritual practices in contemporary Native life
- Depicts encounters between Native spirituality and Western religions
- Uses mythological figures and archetypes to convey cultural values
- Examines the relationship between spirituality and cultural identity
Prominent Native American authors
- Native American authors have contributed significantly to American literature since the 19th century
- Their works offer diverse perspectives on indigenous experiences and challenge dominant narratives
Pre-1900 writers
- William Apess (Pequot) wrote autobiographical and political works
- Sarah Winnemucca (Northern Paiute) authored "Life Among the Piutes" (1883)
- Zitkala-Ša (Yankton Dakota) published stories and essays in the early 1900s
- Charles Alexander Eastman (Santee Dakota) wrote about Native life and history
- George Copway (Ojibwe) published autobiography and cultural accounts
20th century voices
- (Kiowa) won the Pulitzer Prize for "" (1968)
- Leslie Marmon Silko (Laguna Pueblo) authored "Ceremony" (1977)
- James Welch (Blackfeet/Gros Ventre) wrote novels and poetry exploring Native identity
- Louise Erdrich (Ojibwe) published numerous novels including "Love Medicine" (1984)
- Sherman Alexie (Spokane/Coeur d'Alene) gained recognition for "The Lone Ranger and Tonto Fistfight in Heaven" (1993)
Contemporary authors
- Tommy Orange (Cheyenne/Arapaho) authored the acclaimed novel "There There" (2018)
- (Muscogee Creek) served as U.S. Poet Laureate from 2019-2022
- Natalie Diaz (Mojave) won the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry in 2021
- Brandon Hobson (Cherokee) explores Native identity in contemporary settings
- Terese Marie Mailhot (Seabird Island Band) wrote the memoir "Heart Berries" (2018)
Literary styles and techniques
- Native American literature employs diverse literary techniques to convey cultural experiences and perspectives
- Authors often blend traditional storytelling methods with Western literary forms
Use of symbolism
- Incorporates natural elements as symbols of cultural or spiritual concepts
- Uses animal totems to represent personal or tribal characteristics
- Employs circular imagery to reflect cyclical views of time and existence
- Utilizes color symbolism rooted in traditional beliefs and practices
- Incorporates traditional crafts (beadwork) as metaphors for storytelling
Narrative structures
- Employs non-linear storytelling reflecting circular concepts of time
- Utilizes frame narratives to embed traditional stories within contemporary contexts
- Incorporates multiple narrators to present diverse perspectives
- Blends realistic and mythical elements in magical realist styles
- Uses episodic structures mirroring oral storytelling traditions
Incorporation of native languages
- Integrates untranslated words or phrases to maintain cultural authenticity
- Uses code-switching between English and Native languages to reflect bicultural experiences
- Incorporates Native language syntax and rhythms into English prose
- Explores themes of language loss and revitalization through characters' experiences
- Provides glossaries or contextual explanations for Native language terms
Major works and their impact
- Native American literature has produced influential works across various genres
- These works have challenged stereotypes and expanded understanding of Native experiences
Novels and short stories
- "Ceremony" by Leslie Marmon Silko explores healing and cultural identity
- "The Round House" by Louise Erdrich addresses issues of justice on reservations
- "The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian" by Sherman Alexie tackles coming-of-age themes
- "House Made of Dawn" by N. Scott Momaday won the 1969 Pulitzer Prize
- "There There" by Tommy Orange presents urban Native experiences in Oakland
Poetry and song
- Joy Harjo's poetry collection "An American Sunrise" explores historical and personal themes
- Simon J. Ortiz's "From Sand Creek" addresses historical trauma and resistance
- Natalie Diaz's "Postcolonial Love Poem" won the 2021 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry
- Layli Long Soldier's "Whereas" responds to official government apologies to Native people
- Ofelia Zepeda's poetry preserves and celebrates the Tohono O'odham language
Autobiographies and memoirs
- "Crazy Brave" by Joy Harjo recounts her journey as a poet and musician
- "The Names" by N. Scott Momaday explores family history and Kiowa culture
- "Where White Men Fear to Tread" by Russell Means offers an activist's perspective
- "Heart Berries" by Terese Marie Mailhot examines trauma and mental health
- "Bad Indians" by Deborah Miranda blends personal memoir with tribal history
Native American literature vs mainstream
- Native American literature often challenges mainstream American literary conventions
- Tensions exist between authentic representation and market demands
Representation and stereotypes
- Counters romanticized or demeaning stereotypes of Native peoples
- Presents complex, multifaceted characters beyond "noble savage" tropes
- Addresses historical inaccuracies in mainstream depictions of Native cultures
- Explores the diversity of Native experiences across different tribes and regions
- Challenges the notion of a monolithic "Indian" identity
Cultural appropriation issues
- Critiques non-Native authors' use of Native stories and cultural elements
- Addresses the commodification of Native spirituality and traditions
- Explores the complexities of cultural sharing versus appropriation
- Advocates for Native voices in telling Native stories
- Examines the impact of misrepresentation on Native communities
Influence on American literature
- Expanded the canon of American literature to include diverse Native voices
- Introduced non-linear narrative structures and magical realist elements
- Influenced environmental writing and nature-centered literature
- Contributed to the development of postcolonial and decolonial literary theories
- Inspired renewed interest in oral traditions and storytelling techniques
Critical reception and recognition
- Native American literature has gained increasing recognition in literary and academic circles
- Critical approaches to Native literature continue to evolve, incorporating indigenous perspectives
Literary awards and honors
- N. Scott Momaday's Pulitzer Prize win in 1969 marked a turning point
- Louise Erdrich received the National Book Award for "The Round House" in 2012
- Joy Harjo's appointment as U.S. Poet Laureate brought wider recognition to Native poetry
- Tommy Orange's "There There" won the PEN/Hemingway Award in 2019
- Native American Renaissance of the 1960s-1970s garnered critical attention
Academic study and criticism
- Establishment of Native American Studies programs in universities
- Development of critical frameworks centered on indigenous perspectives
- Exploration of themes such as sovereignty, land rights, and cultural identity
- Debates over the application of Western literary theory to Native texts
- Increased inclusion of Native American literature in mainstream literary curricula
Contemporary Native American literature
- Modern Native American literature continues to evolve, addressing contemporary issues
- Authors experiment with new forms and technologies while maintaining cultural connections
Emerging themes and trends
- Exploration of urban Native experiences and identities
- Addressing environmental justice and climate change impacts on Native communities
- Examining two-spirit and LGBTQ+ identities within Native contexts
- Incorporating science fiction and speculative elements (Indigenous Futurism)
- Exploring intersections of Native identity with other marginalized experiences
Digital storytelling and new media
- Use of social media platforms to share short-form Native literature
- Creation of interactive digital narratives incorporating traditional stories
- Development of Native-language apps and digital resources for language preservation
- Production of podcasts and audiobooks featuring Native voices and stories
- Exploration of virtual and augmented reality to recreate historical Native spaces
Preservation and revitalization efforts
- Literature plays a crucial role in preserving and revitalizing Native American cultures
- Collaborative efforts between writers, educators, and communities support cultural continuity
Language preservation in literature
- Publication of bilingual texts in Native languages and English
- Creation of children's books and educational materials in Native languages
- Use of Native languages in poetry and song to maintain oral traditions
- Documentation of endangered languages through storytelling projects
- Incorporation of Native language instruction in literature courses
Educational initiatives and programs
- Development of Native American literature curricula for K-12 schools
- Establishment of writing workshops and mentorship programs for Native youth
- Creation of tribal college press to publish and promote Native authors
- Collaboration between Native authors and educators to develop teaching resources
- Integration of Native literature into broader American literature courses
Key Terms to Review (20)
Circular narrative: A circular narrative is a storytelling technique where the plot ends where it begins, creating a sense of closure while also emphasizing the cyclical nature of life or events. This structure often allows for deeper reflections on themes such as fate, continuity, and the interconnectedness of experiences, which are prevalent in various literary traditions, including Native American literature.
Colonialism: Colonialism refers to the practice of domination and control by a foreign power over a territory and its people, often involving the exploitation of resources and cultural imposition. This concept is deeply intertwined with the narratives of oppression, resistance, and identity in various literatures, particularly highlighting the experiences of colonized peoples and the impact of colonization on their cultures and histories.
Connection to nature: Connection to nature refers to the intrinsic relationship and bond that individuals, communities, and cultures have with the natural world. This concept often highlights how nature shapes identity, influences lifestyle, and inspires artistic expression, illustrating the importance of environmental awareness and ecological harmony.
Cultural identity: Cultural identity refers to the sense of belonging and identification that individuals have with a particular culture, shaped by shared values, beliefs, traditions, and practices. This identity plays a crucial role in how people perceive themselves and interact with the world around them, often influencing their personal narratives and experiences. It can be expressed through language, art, religion, and social customs, serving as a bridge between individuals and their communities.
Cultural resilience: Cultural resilience refers to the ability of a community or culture to adapt and thrive despite challenges, disruptions, or oppression. It emphasizes the strength found in cultural identity and traditions that allow a group to maintain their values and practices even in adverse conditions. This concept is particularly significant when examining the ongoing struggles and adaptations of marginalized cultures, reflecting their enduring spirit and capacity for regeneration.
House made of dawn: House Made of Dawn is a novel by N. Scott Momaday, published in 1968, that tells the story of a young Native American man, Abel, returning to his home on a Kiowa reservation after serving in World War II. The novel explores themes of identity, culture, and the struggles faced by Native Americans in a rapidly changing world, highlighting the connection between people and their land.
Indian Reorganization Act: The Indian Reorganization Act, enacted in 1934, was a U.S. federal law aimed at reversing the assimilationist policies imposed on Native Americans and promoting self-governance and economic recovery for tribal nations. It recognized the importance of tribal sovereignty and sought to restore some degree of self-determination to Native American communities, which had been undermined by previous legislation like the Dawes Act. This act also encouraged the creation of tribal governments and provided for the establishment of a land base for tribes, marking a significant shift in federal policy toward Native Americans.
Joy Harjo: Joy Harjo is a prominent Native American poet, author, and musician, known for her deep exploration of identity, culture, and spirituality through her work. As a member of the Muscogee (Creek) Nation, her writings often reflect her heritage and the experiences of Indigenous peoples in America, making her a significant voice in Native American literature.
Metafiction: Metafiction is a type of fiction that self-consciously addresses the devices of fiction, often blurring the boundaries between fiction and reality. This technique allows authors to explore the nature of storytelling itself, raising questions about authorship, narrative structure, and the relationship between the reader and the text. By drawing attention to its own fictional status, metafiction can challenge traditional narrative forms and engage readers in a unique way.
Myth: A myth is a traditional story or narrative that explains the beliefs, customs, or natural phenomena of a culture. Myths often feature gods, supernatural beings, and heroes, serving to convey moral lessons or cultural values while also providing insights into the worldview of a society. In Native American literature, myths are vital as they express the spiritual beliefs and cultural identity of indigenous peoples, intertwining the sacred with everyday life.
N. Scott Momaday: N. Scott Momaday is a prominent Native American author, poet, and artist known for his significant contributions to Native American literature, particularly through his exploration of Native identity and culture. His work often reflects the rich traditions of the Kiowa tribe and addresses themes of connection to nature, storytelling, and the impact of colonization on Indigenous peoples.
Oral tradition: Oral tradition refers to the practice of passing down stories, histories, and cultural knowledge through spoken word rather than written texts. This form of storytelling plays a vital role in preserving the beliefs and practices of communities, often reflecting their identity and values. It serves as a powerful means of expression, particularly in cultures where literacy may be less prevalent, allowing for a rich exchange of ideas and experiences that shape communal understanding.
Pan-indianism: Pan-indianism is a social and political movement aimed at uniting various Native American tribes and cultures across North America to promote common interests and address shared challenges. This movement emerged in response to the historical marginalization and oppression faced by Indigenous peoples, emphasizing cultural solidarity, political activism, and collective identity among diverse tribal nations.
Sovereignty: Sovereignty refers to the authority of a state or governing body to govern itself and make decisions without external interference. It is a key concept in understanding the power dynamics between nations and indigenous peoples, particularly in the context of land rights, self-governance, and cultural preservation.
Spirituality: Spirituality refers to the personal quest for meaning, purpose, and connection with something greater than oneself. This often encompasses a sense of transcendence, inner peace, and the exploration of one's beliefs and values. It is commonly expressed through various forms of art, literature, and cultural practices, reflecting diverse perspectives on existence and the human experience.
The buffalo: The buffalo holds significant cultural, spiritual, and practical importance in Native American literature, symbolizing the connection between indigenous peoples and the natural world. Revered as a source of sustenance, materials, and sacredness, the buffalo embodies themes of survival, community, and respect for nature that are prevalent in many Native American narratives. Its presence often reflects broader ideas about identity, resilience, and the relationship between humans and the environment.
The coyote: In Native American literature, the coyote is often depicted as a trickster figure, embodying both wisdom and folly. This character serves as a central symbol in various myths and stories, representing the duality of nature, the complexity of life, and the cultural values of different Native American tribes. The coyote's antics often reveal important lessons about human behavior, morality, and the balance between cunning and humility.
The woman who fell from the sky: The woman who fell from the sky is a central figure in various Native American creation myths, particularly among the Iroquois. This story often depicts her descent from the sky world, leading to the creation of Earth and its inhabitants, highlighting themes of duality, balance, and the interconnectedness of all living things.
Trail of Tears: The Trail of Tears refers to the forced relocation of Native American nations from their ancestral homelands in the Southeastern United States to designated 'Indian Territory' west of the Mississippi River during the 1830s. This tragic event is marked by the suffering and death of thousands of Native Americans due to harsh conditions, disease, and inadequate supplies during the long journey, and it plays a crucial role in understanding the impact of U.S. government policies on Native American communities.
Tribal literature: Tribal literature refers to the body of work created by Indigenous peoples that reflects their cultural beliefs, traditions, and histories. This literature encompasses oral narratives, songs, myths, and written texts that express the unique identity and experiences of various tribes, often addressing themes such as connection to the land, community values, and spiritual beliefs.