11.1 Labor and working-class literature
9 min read•august 21, 2024
Labor literature emerged as a response to rapid industrialization and social changes in late 19th and early 20th century America. It exposed harsh realities of working-class life and advocated for reforms, shaping public opinion and influencing policy changes.
Key themes included economic inequality, worker , and . Notable authors like and used various literary forms to portray working-class experiences and challenge prevailing narratives of the American Dream.
Origins of labor literature
- Labor literature emerged as a response to the rapid industrialization and social changes of the late 19th and early 20th centuries in America
- This genre aimed to expose the harsh realities of working-class life and advocate for social and economic reforms
- Labor literature played a crucial role in shaping public opinion and influencing policy changes during this period
Industrial Revolution impact
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- Mechanization of production led to widespread displacement of skilled workers
- Urbanization resulted in overcrowded cities and poor living conditions for workers
- Long working hours and dangerous factory conditions became prevalent issues
- exploitation became a significant concern in industrial settings
- The rise of powerful industrialists and monopolies widened the wealth gap
Early labor movements
- Formation of labor unions to advocate for workers' rights and better conditions
- (1869) promoted the idea of "One Big Union" for all workers
- (1886) focused on organizing skilled craft workers
- (1905) advocated for revolutionary industrial unionism
- Strikes and labor protests became more frequent and organized (, 1894)
Key themes in working-class writing
- Labor literature in American Literature Since 1860 focused on exposing social injustices and advocating for workers' rights
- These works often challenged the prevailing narrative of the American Dream by highlighting systemic inequalities
- Authors used their writing to build solidarity among workers and raise awareness about labor issues
Economic inequality
- among a small group of industrialists and financiers
- for workers despite increasing productivity and company profits
- Limited for the working class due to lack of education and opportunities
- Depiction of stark contrasts between luxury and poverty (mansions vs tenements)
- Critique of the capitalist system's inherent inequalities and exploitation
Worker exploitation
- Unsafe working conditions in factories, mines, and other industrial settings
- Lack of job security and arbitrary firing practices by employers
- Child labor abuses in various industries (textile mills, coal mines)
- Long working hours without adequate compensation or breaks
- Sexual harassment and discrimination against female workers
Class consciousness
- Development of working-class identity and solidarity among laborers
- Recognition of shared struggles and common interests among workers
- Critique of middle-class values and aspirations as unattainable for many
- Exploration of the psychological impact of class divisions on individuals
- Portrayal of class conflict and tension between workers and management
Notable labor authors
- These authors played a significant role in shaping the labor literature genre within American Literature Since 1860
- Their works often drew from personal experiences or extensive research into working-class conditions
- Many of these authors faced criticism and censorship for their controversial themes and political stances
Upton Sinclair
- Wrote "" (1906), exposing unsanitary conditions in Chicago meatpacking industry
- Coined the term "" to describe investigative journalists exposing social ills
- Advocated for socialist policies and ran for political office in California
- Other notable works include "" and "," addressing labor issues in different industries
- Sinclair's writing style blended with political commentary and
John Steinbeck
- Authored "" (1939), depicting the struggles of migrant workers during the Dust Bowl
- "" (1937) explored themes of friendship and the American Dream among itinerant workers
- Won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1962 for his realistic and imaginative writings
- Steinbeck's works often focused on the plight of the working poor in California
- His writing style combined with symbolism and allegory
Tillie Olsen
- Wrote "Tell Me a Riddle" (1961), a collection of short stories about working-class life
- "" (1978) explored the challenges faced by working-class women writers
- Olsen's work often addressed the intersection of gender, class, and motherhood
- Her writing style was characterized by fragmented narratives and stream of consciousness
- Olsen's own experiences as a working mother influenced her literary themes and perspectives
Literary forms and styles
- Labor literature in American Literature Since 1860 employed various literary techniques to convey its messages
- Authors experimented with different forms to effectively portray working-class experiences and social issues
- The choice of literary style often reflected the author's political ideology and intended audience
Realism vs naturalism
- Realism aimed to depict everyday life and social conditions with accuracy and objectivity
- Naturalism emphasized the role of environment and heredity in shaping human behavior
- Realist authors (William Dean Howells) focused on detailed observations of society
- Naturalist writers (Theodore Dreiser) explored deterministic themes and characters' lack of free will
- Both styles influenced labor literature by providing frameworks for social critique
Proletarian novel
- Emerged in the 1930s as a distinct genre focusing on working-class protagonists
- Often incorporated socialist or communist ideologies into the narrative
- Aimed to raise class consciousness and inspire political action among readers
- Notable examples include "" by Jack Conroy and "" by Michael Gold
- Proletarian novels frequently employed or ensemble casts
Labor poetry
- Used verse to capture the rhythms and experiences of working-class life
- Often employed accessible language and forms to reach a wide audience
- Poets like and celebrated the dignity of labor
- Labor songs and protest ballads became an important part of the genre
- Some labor poets experimented with free verse and modernist techniques
Historical context
- Labor literature in American Literature Since 1860 was deeply influenced by major historical events and social movements
- These works often reflected and responded to the changing economic and political landscape of the United States
- Understanding the historical context is crucial for interpreting the themes and messages in labor literature
Great Depression influence
- Economic collapse led to widespread unemployment and poverty
- New Deal programs provided inspiration for social reform in literature
- Writers focused on the resilience and solidarity of working-class communities
- Works like "The Grapes of Wrath" depicted the struggles of displaced workers
- Documentary-style writing (James Agee's "Let Us Now Praise Famous Men") gained popularity
Labor unions in literature
- Fictional portrayals of union organizing and strikes became common themes
- Authors explored the internal dynamics and conflicts within labor movements
- Union leaders often appeared as heroic or controversial figures in narratives
- Works like "The Jungle" highlighted the need for collective action among workers
- Some authors criticized corruption and bureaucracy within established unions
Cold War effects
- Anti-communist sentiment led to censorship and blacklisting of leftist writers
- Some authors distanced themselves from earlier radical positions
- Labor literature shifted focus from to individual
- The "Red Scare" influenced the portrayal of unions and worker activism in literature
- Cold War tensions sparked interest in international labor issues and solidarity
Social issues addressed
- Labor literature in American Literature Since 1860 often intersected with other social movements and issues
- Authors explored how class intersected with other aspects of identity and social structures
- These works helped broaden the understanding of working-class experiences beyond economic concerns
Gender roles in labor
- Exploration of women's roles in both paid and unpaid labor
- Depiction of gender discrimination and sexual harassment in the workplace
- Examination of the "double burden" faced by working mothers
- Portrayal of women's participation in labor organizing and strikes
- Discussion of changing gender norms in industrial and post-industrial settings
Race and working class
- Intersection of racial discrimination and economic exploitation
- Portrayal of segregation and unequal opportunities in the workforce
- Exploration of solidarity and tensions between workers of different races
- Depiction of the unique challenges faced by African American laborers
- Examination of racial stereotypes and their impact on labor relations
Immigrant experiences
- Portrayal of immigrant workers' struggles with language and cultural barriers
- Exploration of exploitation and discrimination faced by newcomers
- Depiction of immigrant communities and their role in labor movements
- Examination of the American Dream myth from immigrant perspectives
- Discussion of generational conflicts within immigrant working-class families
Critical reception and influence
- The reception and impact of labor literature evolved over time within American Literature Since 1860
- These works often sparked debates about the role of literature in social and political change
- The genre's influence extended beyond literature to affect public policy and social attitudes
Contemporary critical response
- Initial reactions often polarized along political and class lines
- Some critics praised the social realism and authenticity of labor literature
- Others accused authors of exaggeration or propaganda
- Debates arose over the literary merit of overtly political works
- Many labor authors faced censorship or difficulty in publishing their works
Long-term literary impact
- Influenced development of social realism in American literature
- Expanded the range of voices and experiences represented in the literary canon
- Inspired later generations of writers to address social and economic issues
- Contributed to the evolution of the American novel as a form of social critique
- Helped establish working-class studies as a legitimate field of literary inquiry
Academic study of genre
- Growing recognition of labor literature as a distinct genre in literary studies
- Interdisciplinary approaches combining literature with history and sociology
- Reevaluation of previously marginalized authors and works
- Development of new critical frameworks for analyzing class in literature
- Increased focus on recovering and preserving working-class writing and oral histories
Modern labor literature
- Contemporary labor literature in American Literature Since 1860 continues to evolve with changing economic conditions
- These works often address new forms of labor and exploitation in the globalized economy
- Modern authors frequently blend traditional themes with emerging social and technological issues
Post-industrial themes
- Exploration of and its impact on working-class communities
- Depiction of service industry and workers' experiences
- Examination of automation and its effects on employment
- Portrayal of retraining and career transitions in a changing economy
- Discussion of nostalgia and loss of identity in former industrial towns
Globalization effects
- Exploration of and its impact on American workers
- Depiction of immigrant labor in a globalized economy
- Examination of multinational corporations and their labor practices
- Portrayal of global supply chains and their human costs
- Discussion of international labor solidarity and activism
Digital age labor issues
- Exploration of tech industry working conditions and culture
- Depiction of social media and its impact on work-life balance
- Examination of surveillance and data privacy in the workplace
- Portrayal of remote work and its effects on labor relations
- Discussion of the gig economy and precarious employment in the digital age
Connections to other movements
- Labor literature in American Literature Since 1860 often intersected with and influenced other literary and social movements
- These connections helped broaden the scope and impact of labor writing
- Understanding these relationships provides context for the evolution of the genre
Progressivism and muckraking
- Shared goal of exposing social ills and advocating for reform
- Muckraking journalists often provided source material for labor authors
- Both movements emphasized the power of literature to effect social change
- Progressive era reforms (child labor laws, workplace safety) influenced labor literature themes
- Authors like Upton Sinclair straddled both literary and journalistic approaches
Marxist literary theory
- Provided theoretical framework for analyzing class struggle in literature
- Influenced interpretation and criticism of labor literature
- Some labor authors explicitly incorporated Marxist ideas into their work
- Debates over socialist realism and its application in American context
- Marxist theory helped legitimize the study of working-class literature in academia
Social realism in art
- Parallel movement in visual arts depicting working-class life and labor
- Artists like Diego Rivera and Thomas Hart Benton influenced by similar themes
- Collaboration between writers and artists in portraying labor issues
- WPA Federal Art Project provided opportunities for working-class artists
- Visual and literary representations of labor often reinforced each other's messages
Key Terms to Review (46)
Alienation: Alienation refers to the feeling of estrangement or disconnection that individuals experience in society, often resulting from social, political, or cultural circumstances. This sense of isolation can manifest in various forms, including emotional detachment from one’s surroundings, a lack of belonging, or a disconnection from one’s own identity. The concept is particularly significant in modern literature, where authors explore the complexities of individual existence in an increasingly fragmented world.
American Federation of Labor: The American Federation of Labor (AFL) was a national federation of labor unions in the United States founded in 1886, focusing on skilled workers and advocating for their rights and better working conditions. It played a crucial role in organizing labor movements and negotiating with employers, setting the stage for significant advancements in labor rights and working-class literature during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Carl Sandburg: Carl Sandburg was an influential American poet, writer, and folklorist known for his vivid portrayals of urban life and the working class. His work often focused on the experiences and struggles of ordinary people, blending free verse with traditional poetic forms, making him a key figure in American labor and working-class literature.
Characterization: Characterization is the process by which authors create and develop characters in a story, revealing their traits, motivations, and complexities. This can be done through direct methods, where the author explicitly describes the character, or indirect methods, where the character's personality is revealed through their actions, dialogue, thoughts, and interactions with others. Understanding characterization is crucial in analyzing literature as it helps to illustrate how characters are shaped by their environment and societal factors.
Child labor: Child labor refers to the practice of employing children in work that deprives them of their childhood, potential, and dignity. This often includes work that is mentally, physically, socially, or morally dangerous and harmful. It has been a significant issue in the industrialized world, particularly during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, impacting the lives of many working-class families and shaping labor reform movements.
Class consciousness: Class consciousness refers to the awareness and recognition of one's social class and the collective interests and struggles that come with it. This concept plays a critical role in understanding how individuals perceive their position within the social hierarchy, leading to a sense of solidarity among those sharing similar economic experiences and conditions.
Class struggle: Class struggle refers to the ongoing conflict between different social classes, primarily between the working class and the ruling class, as they compete for resources, power, and control over society. This struggle is often depicted in literature as a reflection of societal inequalities and the impact of economic conditions on people's lives, highlighting themes of injustice and resistance.
Collective protagonists: Collective protagonists refer to groups of characters that collectively represent a social or cultural identity, rather than focusing on a single individual's journey. In literature, these groups often embody shared struggles, experiences, and aspirations of their community, allowing readers to engage with broader themes of class, identity, and collective action. This approach highlights the interconnectedness of individual experiences within larger social frameworks, making it particularly relevant in works addressing labor and working-class issues.
Deindustrialization: Deindustrialization refers to the process where industrial activity in a region or economy declines, leading to the closure of factories and a shift away from manufacturing jobs. This transition often results in significant economic and social changes, as communities that relied on industrial work face job loss, reduced economic opportunities, and shifts towards service-based economies.
Edgar Lee Masters: Edgar Lee Masters was an American poet and writer best known for his collection 'Spoon River Anthology,' published in 1915. This work features a series of poignant and reflective poems that portray the lives of the residents of a fictional small town, addressing themes such as mortality, social injustice, and the struggles of the working class. Masters' writings provide a vital insight into the experiences and voices of ordinary people during a time of significant social and economic change.
Exploitation: Exploitation refers to the unfair treatment and use of individuals or groups, often in a labor context, where one party benefits at the expense of another. It involves taking advantage of workers' vulnerabilities, such as their economic situation or lack of power, leading to inequitable working conditions and compensation. This concept is crucial for understanding the dynamics within labor relations and working-class literature, where the struggles against such injustices are frequently highlighted.
Gig economy: The gig economy refers to a labor market characterized by short-term, flexible jobs often facilitated by digital platforms, where individuals work as independent contractors or freelancers rather than traditional full-time employees. This economic model allows workers to take on multiple projects or gigs simultaneously, offering them greater flexibility but often lacking job security and benefits.
Great Depression: The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic downturn that lasted from 1929 to the late 1930s, marked by unprecedented unemployment, widespread poverty, and a significant decline in industrial production. This period had profound social and cultural impacts, influencing literary movements and themes in various forms of American literature, revealing the struggles of individuals and communities against economic hardship.
Historical materialism: Historical materialism is a Marxist framework that analyzes the development of societies through the lens of material conditions and economic factors rather than ideas or ideology. It emphasizes how the mode of production influences social relations, class struggle, and historical change, making it a fundamental concept for understanding labor dynamics and class struggles in literature.
Industrial Revolution: The Industrial Revolution was a period of major industrialization and technological advancement that began in the late 18th century and continued into the 19th century, drastically transforming economies, societies, and cultures. This revolution brought about significant changes in production methods, leading to urbanization, shifts in labor dynamics, and new social classes, which all influenced various literary movements and themes.
Industrial Workers of the World: The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) is a radical labor union founded in 1905, aimed at organizing unskilled workers across various industries to promote workers' rights and improve labor conditions. It sought to unite all workers regardless of skill, race, or gender, advocating for direct action and the concept of 'one big union.' This approach made the IWW an essential figure in labor movements and working-class literature, emphasizing solidarity among the working class and critiquing capitalism.
Jews Without Money: 'Jews Without Money' is a semi-autobiographical novel by Michael Gold published in 1930, which provides a vivid portrayal of the Jewish immigrant experience in New York City during the early 20th century. The book explores themes of poverty, labor struggles, and the harsh realities faced by working-class Jews, making it a significant work within labor and working-class literature.
John Steinbeck: John Steinbeck was an influential American author known for his novels that capture the struggles of working-class individuals during the Great Depression and the Dust Bowl era. His writings often reflect themes of social justice, empathy for the disenfranchised, and the impact of economic hardship on everyday life, making him a pivotal figure in both Western American literature and labor literature.
King coal: King coal refers to the dominant position of coal as a primary energy source during the Industrial Revolution and into the early 20th century, particularly in the United States. This term highlights how coal fueled economic growth, industrialization, and urbanization while also spotlighting the labor struggles and social issues faced by workers in the coal industry, shaping working-class literature and activism during that era.
Knights of Labor: The Knights of Labor was a significant labor organization founded in 1869 that aimed to unite all workers and promote social reforms, including better working conditions, higher wages, and the end of child labor. This group played a crucial role in the labor movement, advocating for an inclusive approach to worker solidarity regardless of skill level, gender, or race, which was groundbreaking at the time.
Labor and working-class literature: Labor and working-class literature refers to a genre of writing that focuses on the experiences, struggles, and perspectives of the working class, particularly those engaged in manual labor or industrial work. This type of literature often highlights themes such as social injustice, class conflict, and the dignity of work while giving voice to marginalized groups within society. It serves as a reflection of the socio-economic conditions faced by workers, shedding light on their lives through personal stories, poetry, and narrative forms.
Labor Poetry: Labor poetry refers to a genre of poetry that highlights the experiences, struggles, and dignity of workers, often focusing on themes like class struggle, social justice, and the human condition in relation to work. This form of poetry seeks to give voice to the working class, portraying their realities and advocating for their rights, making it an essential component of labor and working-class literature.
Labor strikes: Labor strikes are organized work stoppages by employees to express grievances or demand changes regarding their working conditions, wages, or rights. These strikes often aim to leverage collective bargaining power to negotiate better terms and have been pivotal in shaping labor relations throughout history.
Marxist Literary Criticism: Marxist literary criticism is an approach that evaluates literature through the lens of Marxist theory, emphasizing the socio-economic factors that influence literary production and reception. It focuses on the relationship between literature and class struggle, exploring how literature reflects, critiques, or supports the prevailing economic systems. By examining themes of class conflict, power dynamics, and material conditions, this criticism aims to reveal the ideological underpinnings of texts and their role in shaping societal values.
Muckraker: A muckraker is a journalist or writer who investigates and exposes corruption, scandals, and societal issues, particularly in politics and business. This term gained prominence during the Progressive Era in the early 20th century, when writers aimed to highlight social injustices and advocate for reform. Muckrakers played a crucial role in raising public awareness about the struggles of the working class and labor issues, ultimately leading to reforms that improved working conditions and corporate regulations.
Muckraking journalism: Muckraking journalism is a form of investigative reporting that seeks to expose corruption, injustice, and societal issues, particularly in politics and business. This type of journalism played a vital role in bringing social reform to light during the Progressive Era, focusing on the struggles of laborers, the effects of industrialization, and the impact of urban growth. It aimed to inform the public and spark change through detailed accounts of societal ills.
Naturalism: Naturalism is a literary movement that emerged in the late 19th century, emphasizing the influence of environment, heredity, and social conditions on human behavior. It builds on realism but goes further by suggesting that individuals are often shaped by forces beyond their control, reflecting a deterministic view of life.
North and South: The terms 'North' and 'South' refer to the distinct cultural, economic, and social divisions in the United States, particularly before and during the Civil War era. The North was characterized by industrialization, urbanization, and a growing labor force, while the South was predominantly agrarian, relying heavily on plantation agriculture and slave labor. These differences influenced various aspects of society, including literature, class struggles, and social movements.
Of Mice and Men: Of Mice and Men is a novella written by John Steinbeck, published in 1937, that tells the story of two displaced ranch workers during the Great Depression in California. The novella explores themes of friendship, dreams, loneliness, and the harsh realities of life for the working class, highlighting the struggles faced by itinerant laborers as they pursue their aspirations amidst an unforgiving environment.
Oil!: Oil is a natural resource that has played a crucial role in shaping the economic and social landscape of the modern world. As a key commodity in industrialization, oil significantly influenced labor movements and working-class literature, reflecting the struggles and aspirations of workers in an oil-dependent economy.
Outsourcing: Outsourcing is the business practice of hiring third-party companies or individuals to perform tasks, handle operations, or provide services that could be done internally. This practice often aims to reduce costs, increase efficiency, and focus on core business activities. In the context of labor and working-class literature, outsourcing can highlight themes of job loss, economic instability, and the struggles faced by workers as companies seek cheaper labor elsewhere.
Progressivism: Progressivism is a social and political movement that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, advocating for reforms to address issues caused by industrialization, urbanization, and corruption. This movement sought to improve living conditions for the working class, promote labor rights, and establish more democratic processes in government. Progressivism played a crucial role in shaping the landscape of American society during this transformative period, influencing literature that depicted the struggles of workers and the fight for social justice.
Proletarian literature: Proletarian literature is a genre of writing that focuses on the lives, struggles, and experiences of the working class. It aims to give voice to the working poor, often highlighting themes of social injustice, labor rights, and class struggle. This type of literature emerged prominently during the 20th century, reflecting the conditions of urban industrialization and the rise of labor movements, as it sought to depict the realities faced by everyday workers.
Pullman Strike: The Pullman Strike was a nationwide railroad strike in the United States that occurred in 1894, initiated by workers of the Pullman Company in response to wage cuts and high rents in company-owned housing. This strike highlighted the tensions between labor and management during the Industrial Revolution, showcasing the struggles of the working class for better conditions and fair wages, while also raising questions about government intervention in labor disputes.
Realism: Realism is a literary movement that emerged in the mid-19th century, focusing on representing everyday life and ordinary people with an emphasis on accuracy and detail. This movement sought to depict life as it truly is, often highlighting social issues and the complexities of human behavior.
Silences: Silences refer to the absence of voices, narratives, and representation within literature that can signify oppression or marginalization. In the context of labor and working-class literature, silences often highlight the struggles and experiences of workers who are unheard or ignored by mainstream society, revealing deeper social inequalities and power dynamics.
Social criticism: Social criticism is a form of critique that examines societal issues, highlighting injustices and advocating for change. It often seeks to challenge established norms and bring awareness to the struggles of marginalized groups, reflecting the values and concerns of specific historical moments. This approach can be found in various literary movements, which use their narratives to critique social structures, the human condition, and the consequences of systemic inequalities.
Social mobility: Social mobility refers to the ability of individuals or groups to move up or down the social ladder, influencing their economic status, education, and occupation. It reflects the degree of inequality within a society and the opportunities available for advancement. This concept plays a significant role in understanding how personal circumstances, class structures, and societal factors interact to shape individual life chances.
Stagnant wages: Stagnant wages refer to a situation where income levels for workers remain unchanged over a prolonged period, failing to keep pace with inflation or the cost of living. This phenomenon often indicates economic challenges and can lead to reduced purchasing power, creating significant impacts on the working class and their quality of life.
The disinherited: The disinherited refers to individuals or groups who have been deprived of their rights, resources, or opportunities, often as a result of systemic inequality and social injustice. This concept is crucial in understanding the experiences of the working class and labor movements, highlighting their struggles against economic exploitation and their quest for dignity and rights.
The Grapes of Wrath: The Grapes of Wrath is a novel by John Steinbeck published in 1939 that tells the story of the Joad family as they migrate from Oklahoma to California during the Great Depression. The book highlights the struggles faced by the working class and serves as a powerful critique of social injustice and economic hardship, making it a key work in American literature and labor studies.
The Jungle: The Jungle is a novel by Upton Sinclair, published in 1906, that exposes the harsh conditions and exploitation of immigrant workers in the American meatpacking industry. The book is a stark representation of social realism, detailing the struggles of laborers and highlighting the severe impact of industrialization and urbanization on society, particularly the working class.
Tillie Olsen: Tillie Olsen was an influential American author and activist known for her poignant works that focus on the experiences of working-class women and the struggles of labor. Her writing often highlights themes of motherhood, poverty, and the intersection of gender and class, making her a significant figure in labor and working-class literature. Olsen's own background as a child of immigrants and her experiences with economic hardship deeply informed her literary voice.
Unionization: Unionization is the process by which workers come together to form a union, a collective organization that advocates for their rights and interests in the workplace. This movement is rooted in the struggle for better wages, safer working conditions, and fair treatment, and it plays a vital role in labor and working-class literature by highlighting the voices and experiences of workers. Through literature, the challenges and triumphs of unionization are expressed, offering insights into the broader social and economic contexts that shape workers' lives.
Upton Sinclair: Upton Sinclair was an influential American author and social activist best known for his novel 'The Jungle,' which exposed the harsh conditions of the meatpacking industry in the early 20th century. His work is a cornerstone of social realism, highlighting the struggles of the working class and advocating for reform during the Industrial Revolution, while reflecting the transformative impact of urbanization on American society.
Wealth concentration: Wealth concentration refers to the uneven distribution of wealth within a society, where a small percentage of the population holds a large portion of the total wealth. This phenomenon often leads to economic inequality and can significantly impact social dynamics, influencing everything from labor movements to political power struggles.