🖼️American Art – Before 1865 Unit 10 – Early 19th Century American Sculpture

Key Artists and Works

• Horatio Greenough created neoclassical sculptures such as "George Washington" (1840) and "The Rescue" (1837-1850)
• Hiram Powers known for his idealized female figures including "Greek Slave" (1844) which became an international sensation
  • "Greek Slave" depicted a chained nude woman and was celebrated for its technical mastery and emotional power
• Thomas Crawford produced notable works like "Orpheus and Cerberus" (1843) and "Armed Freedom" (1855-1862) for the U.S. Capitol dome
• Edmonia Lewis, the first African American and Native American sculptor to achieve international recognition, created "Forever Free" (1867) and "The Death of Cleopatra" (1876)
• William Wetmore Story, an expatriate artist, sculpted "Cleopatra" (1858) and "Semiramis" (1872) in a neoclassical style with Romantic elements
• Harriet Hosmer, one of the most successful female sculptors of the period, known for works like "Zenobia in Chains" (1859) and "Beatrice Cenci" (1857)
• Erastus Dow Palmer created popular sculptures such as "The White Captive" (1858) and "Indian Girl or The Dawn of Christianity" (1856)

Historical Context

• Early 19th century marked a period of growing national identity and cultural development in the United States
• Neoclassicism, inspired by ancient Greek and Roman art, dominated the artistic landscape
  • Neoclassical style emphasized idealized beauty, harmony, and moral virtue
• Romanticism also emerged, focusing on emotion, individuality, and the sublime in nature
• The American Revolution and the founding of the republic influenced artists to celebrate American ideals and leaders
• Westward expansion and the concept of Manifest Destiny shaped artistic themes and subjects
• Increasing industrialization and economic growth led to a rising middle class and a growing art market
• The abolitionist movement and debates over slavery impacted the works of some sculptors like Edmonia Lewis
• International travel and study in Europe, particularly Italy, were common among American sculptors seeking training and inspiration

Artistic Influences

• Ancient Greek and Roman sculpture provided the foundation for neoclassical style in early 19th century America
  • Sculptors studied and emulated classical masterpieces known through casts, engravings, and firsthand observation in Europe
• Italian Renaissance masters like Michelangelo and Bernini influenced American sculptors' technical approaches and artistic vision
• European neoclassical sculptors such as Antonio Canova and Bertel Thorvaldsen served as important models for American artists
• Romanticism, with its emphasis on emotion and individuality, began to influence American sculpture by mid-century
• American painters like Washington Allston and Thomas Cole inspired sculptors with their Romantic themes and aesthetics
• The Hudson River School, a group of American landscape painters, influenced sculptors' depictions of nature and the American wilderness
• Native American art and culture provided inspiration for some sculptors, though often filtered through a Eurocentric lens
• The works of contemporary European sculptors, encountered through travel and exhibitions, continued to shape American sculptural practice

Themes and Subjects

• Portraiture, especially of prominent American figures like George Washington and Thomas Jefferson, was a major focus for early 19th century sculptors
• Classical mythology and allegorical figures were popular subjects, often used to convey moral or political messages
  • Examples include Horatio Greenough's "The Rescue" and Thomas Crawford's "Armed Freedom"
• Idealized female figures, often depicted nude or semi-nude, were a common theme in neoclassical sculpture (Hiram Powers' "Greek Slave")
• Native American subjects appeared in works like Erastus Dow Palmer's "Indian Girl or The Dawn of Christianity," though often romanticized and stereotyped
• Historical and literary figures, such as Harriet Hosmer's "Zenobia in Chains" and William Wetmore Story's "Cleopatra," were popular subjects
• Scenes from American history and westward expansion began to emerge as subjects by mid-century
• Christian religious themes and figures, such as angels and biblical characters, appeared in some sculptural works
• The American wilderness and its inhabitants, both human and animal, inspired sculptors seeking to capture the nation's unique character

Materials and Techniques

• Marble was the most prestigious material for neoclassical sculpture, prized for its purity, luminosity, and association with classical antiquity
  • American sculptors often imported marble from Italy, particularly Carrara marble
• Bronze casting was also used, especially for public monuments and smaller-scale works
  • The lost-wax method, an ancient technique, was commonly employed for bronze casting
• Plaster was used for preliminary models and casts, as well as for reproducing popular works for a wider audience
• Carving techniques, such as the use of pointed chisels, tooth chisels, and rasps, were essential skills for marble sculptors
• Modeling in clay was an important step in the sculptural process, allowing artists to develop their designs before transferring them to marble or other materials
• Pointing machines, which used a system of adjustable rods and points, helped sculptors transfer measurements from models to marble blocks
• Finishing techniques, such as polishing and patination, were used to refine the surface texture and color of sculptures
• Some sculptors experimented with mixed media, incorporating materials like wood, shell, and semi-precious stones into their works

Stylistic Developments

• Neoclassicism dominated early 19th century American sculpture, characterized by idealized forms, balanced compositions, and references to classical antiquity
• Romanticism emerged as a counterpoint to neoclassicism, emphasizing emotion, individuality, and the sublime
  • Romantic sculptures often featured more dynamic poses, expressive faces, and dramatic themes
• Naturalism began to influence American sculpture by mid-century, with artists seeking to depict their subjects with greater realism and attention to detail
• The "Greek Slave" by Hiram Powers exemplified the neoclassical style, with its idealized nude figure and references to ancient Greek sculpture
• Thomas Crawford's "Armed Freedom" combined neoclassical elements with a more dynamic, Romantic pose and allegorical subject matter
• Harriet Hosmer's "Zenobia in Chains" blended neoclassical idealism with a Romantic interest in historical and literary themes
• Edmonia Lewis's works, such as "Forever Free," reflected a more naturalistic approach and a commitment to depicting African American subjects with dignity and humanity
• By the end of the period, American sculptors were beginning to explore a wider range of styles and subjects, laying the groundwork for the more diverse and experimental approaches of the late 19th century

Patronage and Commissions

• Early 19th century American sculptors relied heavily on patronage from wealthy individuals, institutions, and the government
• The U.S. government commissioned several major sculptural projects, such as the U.S. Capitol's statuary and the Washington Monument
  • Thomas Crawford's "Armed Freedom" and Horatio Greenough's "George Washington" were both government commissions
• Private patrons, often from the growing middle class, commissioned portraits, allegorical figures, and other works for their homes and public spaces
• Art unions and subscription societies emerged as a means of funding and distributing sculptural works to a broader audience
• The American Art-Union, founded in 1844, played a significant role in promoting and supporting American sculptors
• Sculptors also relied on commissions from churches, universities, and other institutions for religious and allegorical works
• Expatriate sculptors like William Wetmore Story and Harriet Hosmer often found patrons among wealthy American and European collectors in Italy
• The success of works like Hiram Powers' "Greek Slave" demonstrated the growing market for American sculpture both at home and abroad

Legacy and Impact

• Early 19th century American sculpture laid the foundation for the country's rich sculptural tradition and helped establish a distinct American artistic identity
• The neoclassical style, exemplified by artists like Horatio Greenough and Hiram Powers, remained influential throughout the 19th century and beyond
• The works of expatriate sculptors like William Wetmore Story and Harriet Hosmer helped raise the international profile of American art
  • Their success inspired future generations of American artists to study and work abroad, particularly in Italy
• Edmonia Lewis's achievements as an African American and Native American sculptor paved the way for greater diversity and representation in American art
• The popularity of works like "Greek Slave" and "Armed Freedom" demonstrated the power of sculpture to engage with social, political, and moral issues
• The sculptural programs of the U.S. Capitol and other government buildings helped shape the nation's visual identity and cultural memory
• The technical and artistic innovations of early 19th century sculptors, such as the use of pointing machines and the blending of neoclassical and Romantic elements, influenced later generations of American sculptors
• The period's emphasis on idealism, allegory, and moral uplift in sculpture set the stage for the more diverse and experimental approaches of the late 19th and early 20th centuries