🏛️American Architecture Unit 10 – Urban Planning & Landscape Architecture

Key Concepts in Urban Planning

• Urban planning involves the design and organization of cities and communities to create functional, livable spaces
  • Encompasses land use, transportation, housing, economic development, and environmental sustainability
• Zoning regulations divide cities into districts (residential, commercial, industrial) and specify permitted land uses and building requirements within each zone
• Urban density refers to the number of people or dwelling units per unit of land area (square mile or acre)
  • Higher density often associated with more compact, walkable neighborhoods and efficient use of resources
• Mixed-use development combines multiple land uses (residential, commercial, office) within a single building or area to create vibrant, diverse communities
• Walkability measures how friendly an area is to walking, influenced by factors such as sidewalks, street connectivity, and proximity to destinations
• Green infrastructure incorporates natural elements (parks, green roofs, rain gardens) into urban design to manage stormwater, reduce heat island effect, and provide recreational opportunities
• Transit-oriented development (TOD) concentrates housing, commercial activities, and public spaces around public transit stations to encourage ridership and reduce car dependence

Historical Context of American Urban Design

• Early American cities (Boston, Philadelphia) influenced by European urban planning principles, featuring grid street patterns and central squares
• City Beautiful movement in late 19th/early 20th century emphasized grand, neoclassical architecture and monumental public spaces (Chicago's World's Columbian Exposition)
• Post-World War II suburbanization driven by factors such as highway construction, mortgage subsidies, and desire for single-family homes
  • Led to sprawling, auto-dependent development patterns and decline of many urban cores
• Urban renewal programs in 1950s-60s aimed to clear "blighted" areas but often displaced low-income and minority communities and disrupted social fabrics
• New Urbanism emerged in 1980s, promoting walkable, mixed-use neighborhoods and traditional architecture (Seaside, Florida)
• Smart Growth principles developed in 1990s to manage growth, preserve open space, and create more sustainable, livable communities
• 21st-century urban design increasingly focused on issues such as climate resilience, equity, and technology integration

Influential Architects and Planners

• Frederick Law Olmsted, considered the father of American landscape architecture, designed iconic parks (Central Park, Prospect Park) and park systems that shaped cities
• Daniel Burnham, a key figure in City Beautiful movement, created grand plans for cities like Chicago and Washington, D.C.
  • His 1909 Plan of Chicago featured a network of boulevards, parks, and civic centers
• Ebenezer Howard, a British planner, developed the Garden City concept in late 19th century, influencing American suburban development
• Frank Lloyd Wright proposed the Broadacre City model in 1930s, envisioning a decentralized, car-oriented urban landscape with individual homes on large lots
• Jane Jacobs, an influential writer and activist, critiqued modernist planning in her 1961 book "The Death and Life of Great American Cities"
  • Advocated for dense, mixed-use neighborhoods with active street life
• Ian McHarg pioneered the concept of ecological planning in his 1969 book "Design with Nature," emphasizing the importance of working with natural systems in urban design
• Andrés Duany and Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, founders of New Urbanism, designed Seaside, Florida and other walkable, mixed-use communities

Major Urban Planning Theories

• Garden City concept proposed self-contained, planned communities surrounded by greenbelts, with a mix of housing, industry, and agriculture
  • Influenced early 20th-century suburban development in the U.S.
• Modernist planning, exemplified by Le Corbusier's Radiant City, emphasized functional zoning, high-rise buildings, and automobile circulation
  • Critiqued for creating sterile, inhuman environments and neglecting street life
• Rational Comprehensive Planning model, dominant in post-WWII era, involved top-down, expert-driven approach to urban planning
  • Assumed planners could comprehensively analyze and solve urban problems
• Advocacy Planning emerged in 1960s, emphasizing community participation and empowerment in planning process
  • Sought to give voice to marginalized communities and address social and economic inequities
• New Urbanism promotes walkable, mixed-use, human-scaled neighborhoods inspired by traditional town planning principles
  • Aims to create sense of community and reduce car dependence
• Smart Growth principles seek to manage urban growth, preserve open space, and create more sustainable, livable communities
  • Emphasize compact development, transportation choices, and environmental conservation
• Tactical Urbanism involves small-scale, short-term interventions (pop-up parks, temporary bike lanes) to test and demonstrate potential urban design solutions
  • Allows for experimentation and community engagement in planning process

Landscape Architecture Principles

• Landscape architecture involves the design, planning, and management of outdoor spaces, from parks and gardens to urban plazas and streetscapes
• Site analysis is a crucial first step, involving the study of a site's natural and cultural features (topography, vegetation, hydrology, history) to inform design decisions
• Grading and drainage design shape the land to manage stormwater, create accessible routes, and define spaces
  • Techniques include contouring, terracing, and bioswales
• Planting design uses trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants to create aesthetic, ecological, and functional landscapes
  • Considers factors such as climate, soil, and maintenance requirements
• Hardscape design involves the use of paved surfaces, walls, and other built elements to define spaces and circulation routes
  • Materials range from concrete and asphalt to stone and brick
• Water features, such as fountains, ponds, and streams, can provide visual interest, sound, and cooling effects in landscapes
• Lighting design enhances safety, wayfinding, and aesthetics in landscapes, using techniques such as path lighting, uplighting, and feature lighting
• Universal design principles ensure that landscapes are accessible and usable by people of all abilities, through features like gentle slopes, wide paths, and sensory elements

Case Studies: American Cities

• New York City's High Line, a converted elevated railway turned linear park, exemplifies adaptive reuse and innovative urban green space
  • Has spurred economic development and neighborhood revitalization
• Portland, Oregon is known for its strong urban growth boundary, extensive bike infrastructure, and transit-oriented development
  • Demonstrates principles of Smart Growth and sustainable urban planning
• Savannah, Georgia's historic city plan, with its grid of streets and public squares, provides a model of walkable, human-scaled urban design
• Chicago's Millennium Park, built over a rail yard and parking garage, showcases the potential of public-private partnerships and iconic landscape architecture
  • Features include the Cloud Gate sculpture and Lurie Garden
• Seattle's Capitol Hill EcoDistrict is a model of neighborhood-scale sustainability, with green stormwater infrastructure, community gardens, and energy-efficient buildings
• The BeltLine in Atlanta is a multi-use trail and transit project that is transforming a 22-mile loop of abandoned railways into a network of parks, trails, and transit-oriented development
  • Aims to connect 45 neighborhoods and provide new green space and economic opportunities
• Philadelphia's Green City, Clean Waters program is a comprehensive approach to managing stormwater through green infrastructure, such as rain gardens, green roofs, and permeable pavement
  • Demonstrates the potential of landscape-based solutions to urban environmental challenges

Challenges and Innovations in Urban Design

• Climate change poses significant challenges for cities, from rising sea levels and extreme heat to more frequent and severe storms
  • Urban design solutions include green infrastructure, resilient building design, and adaptation planning
• Social equity and environmental justice are critical issues in urban planning, as low-income and minority communities often bear disproportionate burdens of pollution, disinvestment, and displacement
  • Community engagement, inclusive planning processes, and equitable development strategies are key to addressing these challenges
• Affordable housing shortages and gentrification pressures are major concerns in many cities
  • Innovative solutions include inclusionary zoning, community land trusts, and adaptive reuse of existing buildings
• Transportation challenges, such as traffic congestion and inadequate public transit, require multi-modal solutions that prioritize walking, biking, and transit over single-occupancy vehicles
  • Complete Streets policies and transit-oriented development are promising approaches
• Smart city technologies, such as sensor networks, data analytics, and autonomous vehicles, offer new opportunities for urban efficiency and sustainability
  • However, they also raise concerns about privacy, security, and equitable access
• Nature-based solutions, such as urban forests, green roofs, and constructed wetlands, can help cities address climate change, biodiversity loss, and public health challenges
  • Require interdisciplinary collaboration and integration with traditional infrastructure
• Participatory planning methods, such as charrettes, workshops, and online engagement tools, can help ensure that diverse community voices are heard and incorporated into urban design decisions
  • Require commitment to transparency, inclusivity, and power-sharing

Future Trends in Urban Planning

• Climate resilience and adaptation will become increasingly central to urban planning, as cities grapple with the impacts of climate change
  • Will require integration of climate considerations into all aspects of urban design and infrastructure planning
• Health and wellness will be a growing focus, with urban planning seen as a key determinant of public health outcomes
  • Strategies may include active transportation, access to green space, and community-based health services
• Equity and inclusion will be critical priorities, as cities work to address systemic disparities and create more just, resilient communities
  • Will require confronting legacies of racism, discrimination, and disinvestment in urban planning and policy
• Technology integration will continue to shape urban systems and services, from transportation and energy to healthcare and education
  • Will require proactive governance and regulation to ensure that benefits are widely shared and risks are mitigated
• Regionalism and metropolitan planning will become more important, as cities recognize the need to coordinate across jurisdictional boundaries to address issues like transportation, housing, and environmental management
• Adaptive reuse and infill development will be key strategies for accommodating growth and revitalizing urban areas, as cities seek to limit sprawl and make efficient use of existing infrastructure
  • Will require creative design solutions and flexible zoning and building codes
• Nature-based solutions and green infrastructure will play a growing role in urban planning, as cities seek to enhance biodiversity, mitigate climate impacts, and improve quality of life
  • Will require new forms of collaboration between planners, designers, ecologists, and community stakeholders