🌿Algebraic Geometry Unit 1 – Introduction to Algebraic Geometry

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Algebraic geometry studies geometric objects defined by polynomial equations and the properties of these objects that are invariant under algebraic transformations
• Affine varieties are defined as the zero locus of a set of polynomials in affine space $\mathbb{A}^n$
• Projective varieties are defined as the zero locus of a set of homogeneous polynomials in projective space $\mathbb{P}^n$
  • Homogeneous polynomials have the same degree for each monomial term
• Coordinate rings are the rings of regular functions on an affine variety
  • Regular functions are polynomial functions that are well-defined on the variety
• Morphisms between varieties are maps that preserve the algebraic structure
  • They can be described by polynomial functions between the coordinate rings
• Sheaves are a tool for studying local properties of varieties
  • They assign algebraic data (rings, modules) to open sets of a variety
• Schemes are a generalization of varieties that allow for more general "geometric" objects
  • They are defined by gluing together affine schemes (spectra of rings)

Historical Context and Importance

• Algebraic geometry has its roots in the study of polynomial equations and their solutions (roots) dating back to ancient civilizations (Babylonians, Greeks)
• In the 19th century, mathematicians (Riemann, Dedekind, Hilbert) began to study geometric objects defined by polynomial equations more abstractly
• The modern foundations of algebraic geometry were laid in the 20th century by mathematicians such as Emmy Noether, André Weil, and Alexander Grothendieck
  • They introduced powerful algebraic tools (rings, modules, categories) to study varieties and their properties
• Algebraic geometry has important applications in various fields:
  • Number theory (studying solutions to equations over different number fields)
  • Complex analysis (studying complex manifolds and their algebraic properties)
  • Physics (string theory, mirror symmetry)
  • Cryptography (elliptic curve cryptography)
• The interplay between algebra and geometry is a central theme in modern mathematics, with algebraic geometry serving as a bridge between the two subjects

Affine Varieties and Coordinate Rings

• Affine n-space over a field $k$, denoted $\mathbb{A}^n(k)$, is the set of all n-tuples of elements from $k$
• An affine variety $V$ is the zero locus of a set of polynomials $f_1,\ldots,f_m \in k[x_1,\ldots,x_n]$:
  • $V = V(f_1,\ldots,f_m) = \{(a_1,\ldots,a_n) \in \mathbb{A}^n(k) : f_i(a_1,\ldots,a_n)=0 \text{ for all } i\}$
• The coordinate ring of an affine variety $V$, denoted $k[V]$, is the quotient ring $k[x_1,\ldots,x_n]/I(V)$
  • $I(V)$ is the ideal of all polynomials that vanish on $V$
• The Nullstellensatz states that there is a bijective correspondence between affine varieties and radical ideals in $k[x_1,\ldots,x_n]$
  • This allows for studying geometric properties of varieties using algebraic properties of their coordinate rings
• Examples of affine varieties include:
  • Curves (elliptic curves, hyperelliptic curves)
  • Surfaces (quadric surfaces, cubic surfaces)
  • Hypersurfaces (defined by a single polynomial equation)

Projective Spaces and Projective Varieties

• Projective n-space over a field $k$, denoted $\mathbb{P}^n(k)$, is the set of equivalence classes of $(n+1)$-tuples $(a_0,\ldots,a_n) \in k^{n+1} \setminus \{(0,\ldots,0)\}$ under the equivalence relation $(a_0,\ldots,a_n) \sim (\lambda a_0,\ldots,\lambda a_n)$ for all $\lambda \in k^\times$
• A projective variety $V$ is the zero locus of a set of homogeneous polynomials $f_1,\ldots,f_m \in k[x_0,\ldots,x_n]$:
  • $V = V(f_1,\ldots,f_m) = \{[a_0:\ldots:a_n] \in \mathbb{P}^n(k) : f_i(a_0,\ldots,a_n)=0 \text{ for all } i\}$
• Projective varieties can be studied using homogeneous coordinate rings, which are graded rings generated by the homogeneous polynomials vanishing on the variety
• Projective varieties have important geometric properties:
  • They are compact (in the Zariski topology)
  • They have a well-defined intersection theory (Bézout's theorem)
• Examples of projective varieties include:
  • Projective spaces themselves
  • Projective curves (elliptic curves, plane curves)
  • Projective hypersurfaces (defined by a single homogeneous polynomial equation)

Morphisms and Regular Functions

• A morphism between two affine varieties $V \subseteq \mathbb{A}^n$ and $W \subseteq \mathbb{A}^m$ is a map $\varphi: V \to W$ that can be described by polynomial functions $\varphi_1,\ldots,\varphi_m \in k[x_1,\ldots,x_n]$:
  • $\varphi(a_1,\ldots,a_n) = (\varphi_1(a_1,\ldots,a_n),\ldots,\varphi_m(a_1,\ldots,a_n))$
• A regular function on an affine variety $V$ is a function $f: V \to k$ that can be described by a polynomial in $k[x_1,\ldots,x_n]$
  • The set of all regular functions on $V$ forms the coordinate ring $k[V]$
• Morphisms between projective varieties can be described using homogeneous polynomials
  • They must preserve the equivalence relation defining projective space
• Isomorphisms are morphisms with an inverse morphism
  • Isomorphic varieties have the same geometric and algebraic properties
• Examples of morphisms include:
  • Inclusion maps (closed immersions)
  • Projection maps
  • Birational maps (rational functions that are invertible on a dense open set)

Sheaves and Schemes (Intro)

• Sheaves are a tool for studying local properties of varieties
  • They assign algebraic data (rings, modules) to open sets of a variety in a way that is compatible with restriction
• The structure sheaf $\mathcal{O}_V$ of a variety $V$ assigns to each open set $U \subseteq V$ the ring of regular functions on $U$
  • This allows for studying local properties of functions on $V$
• Schemes are a generalization of varieties that allow for more general "geometric" objects
  • They are defined by gluing together affine schemes (spectra of rings) along open subsets
• Affine schemes are the building blocks of schemes
  • The affine scheme $\operatorname{Spec}(R)$ of a ring $R$ is the set of prime ideals of $R$ with a topology (Zariski topology) and a structure sheaf
• Morphisms between schemes are defined locally by morphisms between their affine patches
  • This allows for studying more general geometric objects (singular varieties, arithmetic schemes) using the same tools as for varieties

Applications and Examples

• Algebraic geometry has important applications in various fields:
  • In number theory, algebraic varieties over finite fields or number fields are used to study Diophantine equations and their solutions
    • Examples include elliptic curves and their use in cryptography (elliptic curve cryptography)
  • In complex analysis, complex algebraic varieties are studied as complex manifolds with additional algebraic structure
    • This leads to important results in Hodge theory and the study of Kähler manifolds
  • In physics, algebraic geometry is used in string theory and the study of mirror symmetry
    • Calabi-Yau manifolds and their moduli spaces play a central role in these applications
• Some famous examples of algebraic varieties include:
  • Fermat curves: $x^n + y^n = 1$ (for various values of $n$)
  • Elliptic curves: $y^2 = x^3 + ax + b$ (with $4a^3 + 27b^2 \neq 0$)
  • Grassmannians: varieties parametrizing subspaces of a fixed dimension in a vector space
  • Flag varieties: varieties parametrizing chains of subspaces of a vector space

Common Challenges and Tips

• Algebraic geometry can be abstract and challenging to learn at first, as it requires a solid foundation in algebra (rings, modules, categories) and geometry (topology, manifolds)
  • It's important to have a good grasp of linear algebra, abstract algebra, and topology before diving into algebraic geometry
• The language and notation used in algebraic geometry can be intimidating and difficult to parse
  • It's helpful to keep a list of key definitions and theorems handy and to practice translating between the algebraic and geometric perspectives
• Visualizing algebraic varieties can be challenging, especially in higher dimensions
  • It's useful to work out explicit examples in low dimensions (curves, surfaces) and to use computational tools (such as Macaulay2 or Sage) to explore varieties
• Proofs in algebraic geometry often involve intricate algebraic manipulations and geometric intuition
  • It's important to break down proofs into smaller steps and to try to understand the geometric motivation behind each step
• Some key techniques and tools to master in algebraic geometry include:
  • Working with ideals and quotient rings
  • Computing Gröbner bases and using elimination theory
  • Understanding the correspondence between varieties and ideals (Nullstellensatz)
  • Working with sheaves and understanding their cohomology
  • Using spectral sequences and other homological algebra tools