Glossary

The sonnet, a 14-line poetic , emerged in 13th-century Italy and spread across Europe. Its compact structure and ability to express complex emotions made it popular among poets seeking to showcase their skills. The form evolved into two main types: Petrarchan and Shakespearean.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, the sonnet experienced a revival. Poets like Wordsworth, Keats, and Barrett Browning adapted the form to explore themes of , nature, and human experience. They maintained traditional structures while incorporating new ideas and experimenting with language and .

Origins of the sonnet form

  • The sonnet form originated in Italy during the 13th century and gained popularity throughout Europe in the following centuries
  • Early sonnets were written in Italian and later adapted into English by poets such as Sir Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey
  • The sonnet's compact form and ability to express complex emotions made it an attractive choice for poets seeking to showcase their skill and creativity

Petrarchan vs Shakespearean sonnets

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  • Petrarchan sonnets, named after the Italian poet Petrarch, consist of an (eight lines) followed by a (six lines) with a typical of ABBAABBA CDECDE
  • Shakespearean sonnets, also known as English sonnets, follow a rhyme scheme of ABABCDCDEFEFGG and are composed of three quatrains (four-line stanzas) and a concluding
  • The often presents a problem or question in the octave and a resolution or answer in the sestet, while the develops a theme or argument throughout the quatrains and concludes with a summarizing or twist in the final couplet

Influence of Italian Renaissance poets

  • Italian poets such as Dante Alighieri, Petrarch, and Michelangelo Buonarroti played a significant role in popularizing the sonnet form during the
  • Their sonnets often explored themes of love, , and the human condition, setting the standard for future generations of poets
  • The works of these Italian masters were widely translated and imitated across Europe, contributing to the sonnet's enduring popularity and influence on 18th and 19th-century literature

Structure and rhyme schemes

  • The sonnet's structure and rhyme schemes are essential to its form and contribute to its musicality and memorability
  • Adherence to these formal elements demonstrates a poet's technical skill and ability to work within the constraints of the genre

14 line format

  • Sonnets are composed of 14 lines, a length that allows for the development of a single idea or emotion while maintaining a sense of concision and intensity
  • The 14-line format encourages poets to be economical with their language and to create a sense of unity and completeness within the poem

Meter and iambic pentameter

  • Most sonnets are written in , a metrical pattern consisting of five pairs of syllables (iambs) per line, with the second syllable of each pair being stressed
  • The use of iambic pentameter creates a natural, speech-like rhythm that is pleasing to the ear and helps to convey the poem's emotional
  • Deviations from the strict iambic pentameter pattern can be used to emphasize certain words or phrases and to create variety within the poem

Octave and sestet divisions

  • Petrarchan sonnets are divided into an octave (the first eight lines) and a sestet (the final six lines), with a clear break or shift in tone and content between the two sections
  • The octave typically introduces a problem, question, or theme, while the sestet provides a resolution, answer, or reflection on the preceding lines
  • This structural division allows for the development of a complex argument or narrative within the compact form of the sonnet

Volta or "turn" in meaning

  • The volta, or "turn," is a key feature of the sonnet form, marking a shift in the poem's tone, theme, or perspective
  • In Petrarchan sonnets, the volta occurs between the octave and sestet, while in Shakespearean sonnets, it often appears in the final couplet or between the 12th and 13th lines
  • The volta adds an element of surprise or revelation to the sonnet, encouraging the reader to reconsider the poem's meaning in light of this new information or insight

Thematic elements and conventions

  • Sonnets of the 18th and 19th centuries often drew upon a common set of themes and conventions, while also allowing for individual poets to put their own spin on these traditional elements
  • The exploration of universal human experiences through the lens of the sonnet form allowed poets to connect with readers across time and culture

Love and romance as central themes

  • Love and romance are among the most enduring themes in the sonnet tradition, with poets using the form to express the joys, sorrows, and complexities of romantic relationships
  • Sonnets often explore the nature of love, the beauty of the beloved, and the poet's own emotional state in relation to the object of their affection
  • The compact form of the sonnet lends itself to the expression of intense, personal emotions and the exploration of the nuances of the human heart

Use of extended metaphors

  • Sonnets frequently employ extended metaphors, comparing the beloved or the experience of love to natural phenomena, celestial bodies, or other evocative imagery
  • These metaphors allow poets to convey complex emotions and ideas in a concise and memorable way, creating a sense of unity and coherence throughout the poem
  • Examples of common metaphors in sonnets include comparing the beloved to the sun, stars, or precious gems, or likening the experience of love to a journey or a battle

Idealized beauty of the beloved

  • Sonnets often present an idealized portrait of the beloved, emphasizing their physical and spiritual beauty and depicting them as a paragon of virtue and perfection
  • This idealization reflects the poet's own emotional state and the intensity of their feelings, rather than a realistic portrayal of the beloved
  • The use of hyperbolic language and imagery in describing the beloved's beauty is a convention of the sonnet form, allowing poets to express the depth of their admiration and devotion

Poet's internal emotional struggle

  • Sonnets frequently explore the poet's own internal emotional landscape, revealing their doubts, fears, and conflicts in relation to love and the beloved
  • The sonnet form's ability to capture a moment of intense emotion or psychological insight makes it well-suited to the exploration of the poet's inner world
  • The poet's emotional struggle may be resolved or left unresolved within the sonnet, reflecting the complexity and ambiguity of human experience

Notable 18th and 19th century sonneteers

  • The 18th and 19th centuries saw a resurgence of interest in the sonnet form, with many notable poets putting their own stamp on the genre
  • These poets drew upon the traditions established by earlier sonneteers while also incorporating the sensibilities and concerns of their own time

William Wordsworth

  • , a key figure in the Romantic movement, wrote numerous sonnets throughout his career, often focusing on themes of nature, memory, and the human mind
  • His sonnets, such as "Composed upon Westminster Bridge" and "The World Is Too Much with Us," reflect his belief in the transformative power of the natural world and the importance of individual experience
  • Wordsworth's sonnets are notable for their simplicity of language and their emphasis on the beauty and sublimity of everyday moments

John Keats

  • , another prominent Romantic poet, is known for his skillful use of the sonnet form to explore themes of beauty, art, and the human condition
  • His sonnets, such as "Bright Star" and "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer," showcase his mastery of language and his ability to convey intense emotion through vivid imagery and sensory detail
  • Keats' sonnets often grapple with the fleeting nature of beauty and the poet's desire to capture and preserve it through art

Elizabeth Barrett Browning

  • , a Victorian poet, is best known for her sonnet sequence "," which explores the development of her love for her husband, Robert Browning
  • Her sonnets, such as "How Do I Love Thee?" and "If thou must love me," are notable for their emotional intensity and their frank, unadorned expression of female desire
  • Barrett Browning's sonnets challenge traditional gender roles and expectations, presenting a more complex and nuanced portrayal of love and relationships

Percy Bysshe Shelley

  • , a Romantic poet and contemporary of Keats and Wordsworth, wrote numerous sonnets throughout his short but prolific career
  • His sonnets, such as "Ozymandias" and "England in 1819," often address political and social issues, reflecting his radical views and his commitment to social justice
  • Shelley's sonnets are characterized by their vivid imagery, their musical language, and their exploration of the relationship between the individual and society

Famous example sonnets

  • The 18th and 19th centuries produced many iconic sonnets that continue to be widely read and admired today
  • These sonnets exemplify the key themes, conventions, and innovations of the genre during this period

Shakespeare's Sonnet 18

  • Shakespeare's Sonnet 18, "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?" is one of the most famous sonnets in the English language
  • The sonnet compares the beloved's beauty to the fleeting beauty of a summer day, ultimately asserting that the beloved's beauty will be preserved forever through the poem itself
  • The sonnet's use of natural imagery, its memorable opening line, and its exploration of the power of art to transcend time have made it an enduring classic

Wordsworth's "Composed upon Westminster Bridge"

  • Wordsworth's sonnet "Composed upon Westminster Bridge" captures a moment of tranquility and beauty in the heart of London, as the poet looks out over the city in the early morning light
  • The sonnet's use of visual imagery and its celebration of the urban landscape reflect Wordsworth's belief in the power of nature to inspire and transform the human spirit
  • The sonnet's closing lines, which describe the city as wearing "the beauty of the morning," have become one of the most famous and frequently quoted passages in English poetry

Keats' "Bright Star"

  • Keats' sonnet "Bright Star" addresses the North Star, using it as a symbol of the poet's desire for constancy and permanence in the face of life's transience and mutability
  • The sonnet's use of celestial imagery and its exploration of the tension between the eternal and the temporal reflect Keats' preoccupation with the nature of beauty and the role of the artist
  • The sonnet's closing lines, in which the poet imagines himself "pillowed upon my fair love's ripening breast," have been interpreted as a reflection of Keats' own fears of and his desire for human connection

Barrett Browning's "How Do I Love Thee?"

  • Barrett Browning's sonnet "How Do I Love Thee?" is one of the most famous love poems in the English language, expressing the depth and intensity of the speaker's feelings for her beloved
  • The sonnet's use of anaphora (the repetition of "I love thee" at the beginning of multiple lines) and its catalogue of the various ways in which the speaker loves create a sense of accumulation and emphasis
  • The sonnet's closing lines, which imagine the speaker's love persisting even after death, reflect Barrett Browning's belief in the eternal nature of true love and the power of the human spirit to transcend mortal boundaries

Innovations and experimentations

  • While 18th and 19th-century sonneteers drew upon the established traditions of the form, they also experimented with and subverted these conventions in various ways
  • These innovations reflect the changing social, cultural, and artistic landscape of the period and the desire of poets to find new ways of expressing their ideas and emotions

Subversion of traditional themes

  • Some sonneteers of this period used the sonnet form to challenge or subvert traditional themes and assumptions, such as the idealization of the beloved or the nature of love itself
  • For example, Mary Robinson's sonnet "The Savage of the Desert" uses the conventions of the love sonnet to critique the objectification and exoticization of non-European peoples
  • Other sonnets, such as Elizabeth Barrett Browning's "The Runaway Slave at Pilgrim's Point," use the form to address social and political issues, such as slavery and racial injustice

Irregular rhyme schemes and meters

  • While most sonnets of this period adhered to the established rhyme schemes and metrical patterns, some poets experimented with irregular forms and structures
  • For example, George Meredith's "Modern Love" sequence uses a 16-line sonnet form with an unconventional rhyme scheme to explore the complexities of modern relationships and the breakdown of traditional gender roles
  • Other poets, such as Gerard Manley Hopkins, used sprung rhythm and other metrical innovations to create a more dynamic and expressive form of the sonnet

Incorporation of Romantic sensibilities

  • Many sonnets of the 18th and 19th centuries reflect the influence of Romantic ideas and aesthetics, such as the emphasis on individual experience, the celebration of nature, and the exploration of the sublime
  • Poets such as Wordsworth and Keats used the sonnet form to convey their own unique perspectives and to explore the relationship between the self and the world
  • The Romantic sonnet often blurs the boundaries between the personal and the universal, using the poet's own emotions and experiences as a lens through which to explore broader themes and ideas

Revival in Victorian era

  • The Victorian era saw a renewed interest in the sonnet form, with poets such as Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Christina Rossetti, and Dante Gabriel Rossetti contributing to a significant revival of the genre
  • Victorian sonnets often reflect the moral and social concerns of the period, such as the role of women, the nature of faith, and the impact of industrialization and urbanization
  • The Victorian sonnet also showcases a greater degree of formal experimentation and innovation, with poets such as George Meredith and Gerard Manley Hopkins pushing the boundaries of the form in new and exciting ways

Key Terms to Review (25)

Beauty: Beauty refers to a quality that pleases the senses, often evoking feelings of admiration or delight. In literature, beauty is frequently explored as an ideal, tied to themes of aesthetics, love, and the human experience. It often serves as a reflection of cultural values and societal norms, influencing how characters and emotions are portrayed within poetic forms.
Content: In the context of poetry, particularly the sonnet, content refers to the themes, ideas, and emotions expressed within the poem. It encompasses the subject matter and the message that the poet seeks to convey, shaping how readers interpret and connect with the work. The content can include personal experiences, social commentary, love, nature, and philosophical reflections, all of which contribute to the overall impact of the sonnet.
Couplet: A couplet is a pair of consecutive lines in poetry that typically rhyme and have the same meter. In the context of sonnets, couplets play a crucial role, often appearing at the end of a poem to deliver a powerful conclusion or thematic twist. They enhance the musicality and rhythm of a poem, allowing for a memorable and impactful expression of ideas.
Elizabeth Barrett Browning: Elizabeth Barrett Browning was a prominent Victorian poet known for her passionate and innovative poetry, especially her sonnets, which often explored themes of love, social injustice, and personal freedom. Her most famous work, 'Sonnets from the Portuguese,' showcases her mastery of the sonnet form and reflects her deep emotional experiences and relationship with fellow poet Robert Browning.
Form: In literature, form refers to the specific structural organization and stylistic elements of a piece of writing. It encompasses various components such as meter, rhyme scheme, stanza arrangement, and overall structure that contribute to the poem's meaning and emotional impact. Understanding form is crucial for interpreting the nuances and intentions behind literary works, particularly in poetry where structure can significantly influence how themes are conveyed.
Iambic pentameter: Iambic pentameter is a metrical pattern in poetry consisting of five feet, each foot containing an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. This rhythmic structure is commonly used in English poetry, particularly in sonnets and dramatic works, and helps to create a natural flow of speech while also allowing for emphasis on particular words or ideas.
Imagery: Imagery refers to the use of descriptive language that appeals to the senses, creating vivid mental pictures that enhance the reader's experience. This literary device is crucial for conveying emotions and themes, allowing readers to connect more deeply with the text by evoking sensory experiences and emotional responses.
Interpretation: Interpretation refers to the act of explaining or understanding the meaning of a text, image, or any form of expression. It involves analyzing elements such as language, structure, and context to draw conclusions about its significance and implications. In literature, interpretation is crucial as it shapes how readers perceive themes, character motivations, and the overall message conveyed by the work.
John Keats: John Keats was a prominent English Romantic poet known for his rich imagery and exploration of beauty, nature, and human emotion. His work often embodies the tension between the ephemeral nature of life and the enduring power of art, which connects deeply with themes of nature and the sublime, as well as individual emotional experience.
Love: Love is a complex emotion that encompasses deep affection, attachment, and care towards someone or something. It is often expressed through various forms, including romantic, platonic, and familial connections. In literature, particularly within sonnets and the works of women poets from the Romantic era, love becomes a central theme that explores the intricacies of human relationships and emotional experiences, reflecting societal norms and personal identities.
Metaphor: A metaphor is a figure of speech that makes a direct comparison between two unlike things, suggesting that one is the other to illustrate a point or add meaning. It goes beyond literal interpretation, allowing writers to convey complex ideas and emotions in a more vivid and imaginative way. By connecting abstract concepts with tangible images, metaphors enhance creativity, evoke emotions, and deepen the reader's understanding of the subject.
Mortality: Mortality refers to the state of being subject to death, highlighting the transient nature of human life. This concept deeply influences literature, particularly in poetic forms like the sonnet, where themes of love, loss, and the passage of time are often explored. Mortality serves as a poignant reminder of human limitations and the inevitability of death, prompting reflections on legacy and the human experience.
Octave: An octave is a specific stanza form in poetry, typically consisting of eight lines, which often follows a particular rhyme scheme. This structure is crucial in various poetic forms, particularly in sonnets, where it serves as the first part that presents a theme or argument. The octave sets the tone for the poem and can provide a contrast to the subsequent sestet, creating a compelling dynamic within the work.
Percy Bysshe Shelley: Percy Bysshe Shelley was a major English Romantic poet known for his radical themes, innovative use of language, and deep engagement with emotion and individualism. His poetry often explores the struggles of the human spirit, reflecting a profound sense of personal and societal transformation that resonates with the ideals of the Romantic era, emphasizing the importance of individual feelings and creative expression.
Petrarchan Sonnet: A Petrarchan sonnet is a 14-line poem divided into two parts: an octave and a sestet, following a specific rhyme scheme of ABBAABBA for the octave and typically CDCDCD or CDECDE for the sestet. This form, named after the Italian poet Petrarch, is characterized by its exploration of themes such as love, beauty, and the passage of time, often featuring a volta, or turn, that shifts the argument or perspective between the two sections.
Quatrain: A quatrain is a stanza or poem consisting of four lines, often with a specific rhyme scheme. Quatrains are commonly used in various poetic forms, including the sonnet, where they can help create structure and rhythm. The use of quatrains allows poets to explore themes and ideas within a compact framework, making them a popular choice for both traditional and contemporary poetry.
Renaissance: The Renaissance was a cultural movement that began in Italy during the late 14th century and spread across Europe, marking a period of renewed interest in art, science, and the classical antiquities of Greece and Rome. This era is characterized by a focus on humanism, individualism, and secularism, which profoundly influenced literature, philosophy, and the visual arts, reshaping European society.
Rhyme scheme: A rhyme scheme is the ordered pattern of rhymes at the ends of lines in a poem. It is often represented using letters to indicate which lines rhyme with each other, making it easier to analyze and understand the structure of poetry. Different forms of poetry utilize specific rhyme schemes, contributing to their overall rhythm and flow.
Romanticism: Romanticism was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in the late 18th century and emphasized emotion, individualism, and the beauty of nature. It arose as a response to the rationalism of the Enlightenment and the constraints of Neoclassicism, celebrating personal experience and imagination as key components of creativity.
Sestet: A sestet is a six-line stanza or poem, commonly used in sonnets and other forms of verse. It often serves as the second part of an Italian or Petrarchan sonnet, following the eight-line octave. The sestet typically provides a resolution or response to the problem or theme introduced in the octave, allowing for a shift in tone or perspective.
Shakespearean sonnet: A Shakespearean sonnet is a poetic form consisting of 14 lines, typically written in iambic pentameter and structured into three quatrains followed by a rhymed couplet. This form allows for the exploration of complex themes such as love, beauty, time, and mortality, often culminating in a resolution or twist in the final couplet.
Sonnets from the Portuguese: Sonnets from the Portuguese is a collection of 44 sonnets written by Elizabeth Barrett Browning, expressing her deep love and emotional struggles during her courtship with fellow poet Robert Browning. This work is significant as it showcases the themes of love, loss, and identity, while also reflecting the characteristics of Victorian poetry and the evolution of the sonnet form in the 19th century. The collection stands out as a testament to the capabilities of women writers in an era when their voices were often marginalized.
The Sonnets of William Shakespeare: The Sonnets of William Shakespeare are a collection of 154 poems that explore themes such as love, beauty, time, and mortality. Written in the 16th century, they are renowned for their intricate structure and profound emotional depth, often utilizing the English sonnet form, which consists of three quatrains followed by a couplet. Shakespeare's sonnets have had a lasting impact on poetry and literature, influencing countless writers and poets across generations.
Trochaic meter: Trochaic meter is a rhythmic pattern in poetry that consists of trochees, which are feet made up of a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable. This meter creates a distinct, often lively rhythm in verses, allowing poets to convey emotion and enhance the musicality of their works. Trochaic meter can contrast with other metrical forms, adding variety and depth to poetic structures.
William Wordsworth: William Wordsworth was an English poet and a central figure in the Romantic movement, known for his profound connection to nature and emphasis on emotion. His work often explores the sublime beauty of the natural world, the depth of human feelings, and individual experience, making him a key voice in Romantic poetry. Wordsworth's use of the sonnet form further highlights his innovative approach to expressing personal and universal themes.
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